Tenebrio Molitor: Investigating the Scientific Foundations and Proteomic and Peptidomic Potential ()
1. Introduction
The growing global demand for proteins has raised concerns due to both population growth and changing dietary patterns that must be adjusted to address this challenge. Studies indicate that by 2050, the need for new proteins will represent an answer for sustainable food production [1]. To tackle this demand, researchers from various fields are exploring alternative protein sources, whether of animal or plant origin. Simultaneously, both food production technologies and agricultural practices are being improved to increase protein availability. However the most popular and actual solution, is concerned to the use of pulses (grains of legume) to extract protein with the aim to produce of protein concentrate. It is important to emphasize, that legume belongs to the alimentary group that contains highest amount of protein. The technology used for extract protein from pulses (beans, pea, lentil, chickpea and soy) is a labor-intensive and destructive process. For example, using six tons of beans (bean yield rate per hectare) for protein extraction will result in waste representing 75% of the total six tons used and a value of 25% for protein yield of protein concentrate. Moreover, it is important to call attention to the fact that this legume has a protein of low quality, as a consequence of its deficiency in methionine. Going further, the waste generated will represent a great environmental and agronomic aggression. Thus this plant-based program is not a solution to attend this demand. Looking forward, insects may represent a great solution, but not in its adult phase. To introduce Tenebrio molitor (the T. molitor beetle) as a new food group, it is essential to consider the sensory challenges that may affect consumer acceptance. Two notable disadvantages are: 1) Texture—Due to its high chitin content (23%), T. molitor can have a tough or unpleasant texture, especially when consumed whole or in minimally processed forms. 2) Appearance—Its resemblance to a live beetle may cause visual aversion or rejection, posing a significant barrier to cultural and sensory acceptance. These factors should be taken into account during product development, ideally by using processed forms (such as flours or extracts) that minimize these drawbacks. Additionally, food education strategies and sensory marketing can help promote familiarity and gradual acceptance. Despite of the fact, its high protein content (50%) is an attractive aspect. So, larvae of T. molitor emerge as great solution by its higher protein value (58%) (Oliveira et al., 2024). This matrix is excellent for be processed. A low cost technology, requiring only a press to remove the fat, associated with an intelligent process will permit a production of two high quality ingredients (fat and protein concentrate), without any environmental pollution (Figure 1).
Scientific research on T. molitor is not limited to its nutritional value. Recent studies have focused on proteomic and peptidomic analyses, without yet a definitive conclusion on the structural chemical analysis of these molecules, particularly those found in the larval stage of this insect. These investigations could represent significant potential for the application of new proteins and bioactive peptides in various fields, including human nutrition, animal feed, bioprocesses, and even the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The strategy for structural characterization can be conducted indirectly through the structural definition of the proteins by fragments obtained by mass spectrometry with further structure forecast by artificial intelligence databases (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Diagram of constituents present in larvae of T. molitor that show the potential of using a low cost technology of extraction for separating fat and protein by mechanical pressing.
Figure 2. Percentage, in tons, of protein that can be extracted from beans and waste produced. It was calculated using six tons of beans that represent its yield per hectare. This is the plant-based solution for obtaining protein from pulses.
2. The Need for New Protein Sources
Once again, global population growth and increasing dietary demands, combined with the environmental impacts of traditional livestock farming, make it a priority to seek alternatives that can propose new protein models with nutritional quality similar to that of red meat [2]. This search also encompasses the management of conventional animal production, which presents sustainability challenges, including the need for large amounts of water and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, factors that contribute to the climate crisis [3].
The larva of T. molitor has especially valued due to its high protein content, which can reach up to 58% on a dry basis, comparable to traditional animal protein sources, such as lean meat (80%) and eggs (54%) [4] (Figure 3). Additionally, T. molitor larvae are rich in lipids, making them a nutritionally promising source.
Figure 3. Values in percentage of protein (dry basis) in conventional foods that show the potential of larvae to be used an alternative protein for food ingredient production.
The nutritional value of T. molitor protein is also significant. Research indicates that its proteins are rich in essential amino acids, including leucine, lysine, and methionine, which are often limiting in plant protein sources (Micha et al., 2017). This makes T. molitor larvae a potentially complete protein source for human and animal diets, especially in contexts where conventional food sources are scarce.
3. Biochemical and Nutritional Properties of Tenebrio molitor
The chemical composition of proteins in T. molitor differs from those found in conventional foods. The proteins in this insect’s larvae are predominantly globulins (widely distributed proteins in the plant kingdom, especially in legume seeds, such as beans, peas, lentils, and chickpeas). It can be suggested that these larvae contain proteins similar to the myofibrillar proteins present in the musculature of animals, as the larvae also move and are composed of globulin-like proteins [5]. It is escribed that T. molitor larvae have sufficient strength to move using legs, suggesting that their muscle structure may be similar to that of vertebrate animals [6].
Moreover, studies on the proximate composition of T. molitor larvae show that they are an excellent source of minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, iron, and zinc, which are essential nutrients for human health [7]. These minerals are often deficient in diets based mainly on plant foods, making insects an attractive option for nutritional supplementation (Figure 1).
Regarding lipids, T. molitor larvae contain a significant amount of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which are essential for cardiovascular health [2]. The presence of these fatty acids, combined with high-quality protein, makes T. molitor a nutritionally balanced and efficient food source.
4. Challenges and Nutritional Considerations
Despite its high nutritional value, the use of T. molitor as food source faces some challenges. Firstly, the cultural acceptance of insect consumption varies widely from one region to another. In many parts of the world, especially in the West, eating insects is still viewed with some hesitation, which may limit the adoption of this alternative food source. However, in various cultures across Asia, Africa, and Latin America, insect consumption is traditional and widely accepted [6].
Another significant challenge is the need to establish clear regulatory guidelines for insect consumption. While the European Union has approved the use of T. molitor larvae as food for humans, there are still many issues to be addressed regarding food safety, particularly concerning the potential allergenicity of proteins present in the insect. Studies have shown that some proteins found in T. molitor larvae may not be fully digested, potentially leading to adverse reactions in individuals with allergies [8].
However, research on the digestibility of T. molitor proteins is still in its early stages. Some studies indicate that T. molitor has two major proteins, such as those of 75 kDa and 85 kDa, are they are fully digested in the human gastrointestinal tract, which does not limit the insect’s nutritional effectiveness [9] preventing any suggestion of a toxicological effect from these proteins. Allergenicity is also a concern, requiring further research to identify and mitigate potential health risks. This is another research area that needs to be addressed.
Furthermore, large-scale production of T. molitor requires the development of efficient and sustainable farming systems. Insect farming demands strict control of environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, and feed to ensure stable and high-quality production. Although insects, in general, are more efficient in converting feed into protein compared to vertebrate animals, the necessary infrastructure for large-scale production still needs improvement.
5. Challenges and Contributions to Future Proteomics and Peptidomics Studies
This review presents the latest scientific data described for T. molitor. By organizing the available data, conclusions should be drawn regarding the potential use of this alternative food source in the form of flour or as a proteic and fat ingredient.
Firstly, it is evident that Asian researchers are the most engaged in validating this invertebrate as a potential nutrient source (proteins, fats, and minerals), highlighting its high antioxidant properties (polyphenols and peptides), as well as molecules with technological properties (texture, emulsifying capacity) or technological applications (enzymatic technology and bioprocessing).
In the past 10 years, 12 publications on T. molitor have been observed, with two emphasizing nutritional quality studies, including mineral content, proximate composition, vitamins, and digestibility [10]-[12], mostly using T. molitor larvae as the study material. Regarding protein-focused research, there is a balance between functional-technological aspects, as demonstrated by increased antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity in tofu made with Tenebrio molitor larvae [13] and improved technological quality of ice cream when formulated with T. molitor larvae flour [10].
A nutritional study on T. molitor using protein digestibility techniques found that the two major proteins in T. molitor larvae flour one of 75 kDa and another of 45 kDa were fully digested [11]. Results at this molecular research have already controversy [11], describe that the larvae have two major proteins of 75 and 45 kDa and [9] shows two proteins of 75 and 85 kDa. However, total digestibility of the proteins is shown [11] what indicate the potencial of using those larvae for production of an ingredient of high quality. This evidence supports the claim that T. molitor could be a safe alternative protein source with a production process featuring sustainable characteristics.
From a chemical standpoint, a high solubility of proteins in alkaline pH was described. This factor is crucial because solubilization in an alkaline medium is a key step preceding the production process of protein concentrates [14]. Treatment of T. molitor flour with proteases was used as a method for extracting polyphenols bound to proteins, demonstrating a viable process for using polyphenols as a food ingredient with excellent antioxidant capacity [15] and [16].
Most publication is worried in producing peptides by using enzymatic technology. However, the use of this approach represents only a tool for the production of peptides from the protein matrix present in the meal of T. molitor larvae, with the sole purpose of being a database of scientific studies, without any prospect of technological application for the production of drugs [17]-[24]. The ongoing pursuit of sustainability can be further expanded. It has been demonstrated the feasibility of using adult insect feces in the bioprocessing of protease production by fungi [14].
Among these 12 studies conducted across Asia, Europe, and South America, it is noteworthy that North America has shown no interest in the subject. Table 1 indicates that no research group worldwide is currently working on closing the cycle of proteomic and peptidomic studies in T. molitor and this a necessary condition for validating this insect larva as an alternative food ingredient source.
6. Environmental Impact and Sustainability
The production of T. molitor also offers significant environmental benefits. Compared to conventional meat production, insect farming requires far fewer resources, such as water, space, and feed. Studies show that the carbon footprint associated with insect production is considerably lower, making them a sustainable food alternative, particularly in a scenario of climate change and resource scarcity [20].
Additionally, insects can be fed organic waste, such as food scraps or non-edible plant materials, which can help reduce food waste and alleviate the pressure on agricultural resources. This makes T. molitor farming a solution not only for food security but also for waste management and reducing the environmental impact of food production.
Table 1. Distribution of research about protein of T. molitor studies among scientists of three differen continentes (Asian, European and South American) in the last ten years.
Ano |
País |
Autor |
Fase da Metamorfose |
Insecto |
Aspecto Tecnológico e Funcional |
Proteína/Fibra Alimentar |
Perspective of Use |
2024 |
Korea |
[20] |
Larva |
T. molitor |
Proteic extraction (0.25 M NaOH/hydrolisis alcalase)/functional peptides/antioxidant/
anti-inflamatory agents |
- |
Bioactive peptide |
2024 |
Brasil |
[11] |
Adult |
T. molitor |
Nutricional aspects/
digestibility protein isolate |
Protein of quality- |
Scientific
knowledgement |
2024 |
Spain |
[19] |
Adult |
T. molitor |
Immunonutrition/anti-inflamatory agents/cellular biology |
Quitosan/
dietary fiber |
Peptídeos- scientific knowledgement |
2023 |
Czech republic |
[10] |
Larvae |
T. molitor |
Technological Aspects/ice cream |
- |
Technological function |
2023 |
Korea |
[21] |
Larvae |
T. molitor |
Protein isolate/protein hydrolysate/biological tests |
- |
Peptides- scientific knowledgement |
2022 |
China |
[22] |
Adult |
T. molitor |
Protein isolate/protein hydrolysate/ |
- |
Peptides- scientific knowledgement |
2022 |
Korea |
[13] |
Adult |
T. molitor |
Protein isolate/protein hydrolysate/Tofu fortified/Digestibility/
antioxidant activity |
- |
Peptides scientific knowledgement |
2020 |
Korean |
[23] |
Larvae |
T. molitor |
Protein hydrolysate/antioxidant activity hepatoprotective |
- |
Peptides scientific knowledgement |
2022 |
Italian |
[17] |
Larvae |
T. molitor |
Protein concentrate
(pH 7.4)/protein hydrolysate/ gastrointestinais enzymes/antihypertensive activity |
- |
Peptidomic of protein hydrolysate scientific knowledgement |
2019 |
Korean |
[18] |
Larvae |
T. molitor |
Protein concentrate obtido em diferentes pHs/Atividade
anti-inflamatória e nutricional |
- |
- |
2020 |
Spain |
[19] |
Adult |
T. molitor |
Protein hydrolysate/
comercial enzymes |
- |
Peptidomic
antihypertensive activity |
2024 |
Spain |
[14] |
Adult |
T. molitor |
Quitin/Fermentation for
protease production |
- |
- |
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
T. molitor; larvae represents a promising food alternative to meet the growing demand for protein in the future. Its high protein and fat content associated with a low cost technology may represent a great solution for production of high quality food ingredients. Collaboration between scientists, regulatory agencies, and the industry will be essential to ensure that this larvae can be produced safely and sustainably, without compromising public health or the environment.
In a world where food security and sustainability are becoming increasingly urgent, T. molitor could be one of the pillars of a more efficient and eco-friendly global food system. The adoption of larvae of insects as a protein source could not only meet the nutritional needs of a growing population but also promote the transition to a more sustainable and less resource-dependent food production model.