Non-Timber Forest Products Used by the Baka of Gribé (East-Cameroon)

Patrice Brice Mvogo Ottou; Teclaire Ngouondjou Foze; L&#233; a Doumbe Makembe; Anne Pertinie Nguemale Belale; Julie Agathe Noudi&#233; di&#233; Kamgang; Jacques Bruno Ngotta Biyon; Zenabou Ndiang; Jean Lagarde Betti; Richard Jules Priso

doi:10.4236/ajps.2025.166058

American Journal of Plant Sciences > Vol.16 No.6, June 2025

Non-Timber Forest Products Used by the Baka of Gribé (East-Cameroon)

Patrice Brice Mvogo Ottou¹, Teclaire Ngouondjou Foze², Léa Doumbe Makembe¹, Anne Pertinie Nguemale Belale¹, Julie Agathe Noudiédié Kamgang³, Jacques Bruno Ngotta Biyon^1*, Zenabou Ndiang¹, Jean Lagarde Betti^1,4, Richard Jules Priso¹
¹Biology and Physiology Laboratory of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon.
²Department of Medical and Health Studies, University Institute of the Gulf of Guinea (IUG), Douala, Cameroon.
³Regional Center for Specialized Teaching in Agriculture Forest-Wood, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, University of Dschang, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
⁴Cameroon National Herbarium, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
DOI: 10.4236/ajps.2025.166058 PDF HTML XML 2 Downloads 25 Views

Abstract

This study aimed to make an inventory of the NTFPs used by the Baka community of Gribé, with the participation of 76 households and 178 informants. The ethnobotanical data collected from the semi-structured interviews were cleaned and analysed. The organs used to prepare the recipes were removed, and the specimens were identified. The NTFP flora was characterised floristically and then ethnobotanical indices (Ip and VU) were calculated to determine the plants of interest. To describe harvesting practices, the farmer’s daily activities were monitored. 85 plant species were mentioned in 867 citations for three main uses: food (47.40%), medicinal (21.34%) and services (31.26%). Nineteen species were sought for food use, including Panda oleosa (17.57%), Gnetum africanum (13.86%), Afrotyrax lepidophyllus (13.62%) and Irvingia gabonensis (9.24%). Sixty-two species have been recorded as medicinal plants. Alstonia boonei (28 citations) is the most popular medicinal species in Gribé for treating infectious and parasitic diseases. Nineteen species were identified as service plants, with Marantochloa cordifolia (45 citations) being the most popular. Trees from dense forests with very little disturbance (72.94%) account for 65% of species. Schumanniophyton magnificum (Ip = 3) is highly effective against dysentery; Aframomum daniellii (Ip = 3) against Gonorrhoea, Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (Ip = 3) against kidney disease and Alstonia boonei (Ip = 2) against malaria. Entandrophragma cylindricum (VU = 1.25), Massularia acuminata (VU = 1.13), Panda oleosa (VU = 1.03) and Gnetum africanum (VU = 1.00) are also species of interest. Barks (43.24%) and fruits (33.76%), which are highly available, are the most sought-after organs. Stripping the bark (1.91%), debarking the tree (19.48%) and collecting the fruit (31.35%) are the main harvesting techniques.

Keywords

Baka from Gribé, Ethnobotanical Indices, NTFPs, Sampling Techniques, Species of Special Interest

Share and Cite:

Mvogo Ottou, P. , Ngouondjou Foze, T. , Doumbe Makembe, L. , Nguemale Belale, A. , Noudiédié Kamgang, J. , Ngotta Biyon, J. , Ndiang, Z. , Betti, J. and Priso, R. (2025) Non-Timber Forest Products Used by the Baka of Gribé (East-Cameroon). American Journal of Plant Sciences, 16, 831-863. doi: 10.4236/ajps.2025.166058.

1. Introduction

The forests of Central Africa, more than half of which make up the Congo Basin, constitute the second largest area of dense tropical rainforest in the world after the Amazon [1]. These forests, and Cameroon’s forests in particular, are home to an exceptional biological diversity on a global scale [2]. Cameroon’s forests have an important economic function, both nationally and internationally, in addition to many other complementary functions. For rural populations, the forest plays not only an economic role, but also a social and cultural one [3]. As well as wood, the main timber resource exploited in the forest, the undergrowth hides real treasures that have long been ignored or neglected: non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Many rural people depend on NTFPs for their livelihood and source of income.

Although the January 1994 forestry law in Cameroon does not specifically take NTFPs into account in Cameroon, their exploitation for economic purposes is already taking place. It has intensified since 2000, with more than 1.044.82 tonnes of leaves, bark, seeds and roots being harvested annually [4]. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) provide emergency food during lean periods, or constitute an emergency food safety net against seasonal hazards and in cases of need for households [5]. NTFPs play a key role in improving the living conditions of local and riparian populations in the hinterland. They provide basic necessities for subsistence and some make a relative contribution to the household economy through the income generated by their marketing [6]. These products complement household food production and provide essential nutritional and medicinal products. The current value of NTFPs to conservationists, foresters, development stakeholders and indigenous populations has prompted numerous initiatives aimed at promoting the sustainable use and marketing of NTFPs as a means of improving the well-being of rural populations, while at the same time conserving existing forests [7].

Although Cameroon’s forestry law is currently being revised to regularise the use of NTFPs and place them on the legislative agenda, the initiatives undertaken are rarely of the following types related to the use of scientific techniques to determine the availability of these products around areas where communities settle (“forest villages”) and near conservation areas. It is important to know the availability of resources to better manage and value them [8].

Considerable indigenous knowledge of certain non-timber forest products does exist [7]. However, rigorous resource assessment of some NTFPs, particularly in tropical countries, is relatively new and has received little attention to date [7]. The multitude and variability of NTFPs, the multiplicity of interests and disciplines involved in NTFP assessment, financial and Institutional constraints, and the lack of terminology and universal units of measurement make it difficult to access the NTFPs and their resources [9].

NTFPs include foodstuffs, fodder plants, medicinal plants, edible plants, construction materials, craft products and exudates [10]. The exploitation of NTFPs does not receive the same attention as timber in terms of its profitability, regulation and valuation; yet these products are a permanent source of basic goods and income for local and riparian populations. According to [11], the relationship between the forest peoples of Central Africa (Pygmies and Bantu) and forest ecosystems is mystical and an integral part of their culture. Local people have empirical knowledge of the importance, availability, distribution, regeneration and seasonality of the resources they use on a daily basis. However, it has to be realised that these populations are often harmed and their knowledge is rarely considered in investigations that aim to at enhance biodiversity.

The “Baka” communities and the “Pygmy” people of the forests of eastern Cameroon should therefore be involved in analysing the productivity and the NTFP potential of the forests, and in developing strategies to respond to various constraints at both the national and regional levels. Work on NTFPs in Cameroon is carried out by locality and concerns the development of resource uses. More recent work has focused on the socio-economic aspects of these resources; however, very little work has been done on the management of these resources, which are not inexhaustible [12]. By drawing on the knowledge of the “Baka” communities of Gribé, this study is part of an approach to the sustainable management of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) exploited by the populations of this community.

The general objective is to make an inventory of the NTFPs used by the Baka community of Gribé, and specifically to:

1) Characterise the uses of NTFPs by the Baka community of Gribé;

2) Highlight, through ethnobotanical indices, the species most in demand in the Baka community of Gribé;

3) Describe some harvesting practices for useful plants by the Baka of Gribé.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Presentation of the Study Area

The study took place in the village of Gribé, in the district of Yokadouma in the Boumba and Ngoko Division (East Cameroon Region). The village is located at coordinates 03˚00'10" north latitude and 14˚49'25" east longitude (Figure 1).

Gribé as a whole is subject to a Guinean-type equatorial climate, with an average annual temperature of 24˚C and average annual rainfall of up to 145.75 mm. The soils in the village of Gribé are ferralitic [13]. Gribé is part of the semi-caducifolia

Figure 1. Location map of Gribé village.

rainforest [14]. The main wildlife species found in the vicinity of the village of Gribé are blue duiker (Cephalophus callipygus, C. dorsalis, C. leucogaster and C. nigrifrons), yellow-backed duiker (C. silvicultor) and wild boar (Potamochoerus porcus). Smaller animals, such as blue duiker (C. monticola) and porcupines (Atherurus africanus), are also hunted [15].

Two ethnic groups live together in the Gribé village: the Baka (around 94 households with a total of 400 people) and the Konabembé (around 74 households with a total of 300 people) [16]. For the most part, they make their living from farming, hunting, gathering, petty trading, small-scale livestock farming and fishing [17] [18]. However, logging continues to play a key role and influence the socio-economic context, as Gribé has 15 forest management units divided between 10 logging companies covering a total area of 823.982 hectares. Moreover, access to NTFPs is almost unrestricted.

2.2. Floristic Survey and Florula Characterisation

The method used for data collection was the ethnobotanical survey method through two activities: semi-structured interviews with Baka households and household monitoring.

2.2.1. Ethnobotanical Surveys

Information and awareness-raising meetings were held in the Baka communities to obtain the consent of those concerned, and information was collected from anyone who voluntarily agreed to take part in the interviews. The people targeted by the interviews were adults and elderly people of both sexes who could provide reliable information on the use of wild plants. Semi-structured interviews per [19]-[21] were used to gather information on useful plants and to collect some of it. The information collected was based on a standardised framework, inspired by the form proposed by Betti for the UVACO-PFNL 2019 project, and specifically concerned: the identity of the informant, the categories of use, the characteristics of the plant material used for each recipe and the instructions for use of the organs. Information on organ availability and other uses was also collected (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Different sections of the interview guide.

An interview guide was chosen by the canton chief to facilitate discussions with the local population and to accompany them on site when samples were collected. Information on medical use was collected using a standardised format based on the Pharmel sheets [22]. For each therapeutic indication, details of the recipe were carefully recorded and, wherever possible, the treating plant was sought out, seen, filmed and harvested [23] [24]. In the case of food plants, details were sought as to whether they could be used as a main dish, vegetable, spice or condiment, snack or drink [20].

2.2.2. Specimen Collection and Identification

Specimens were collected “in situ”, firstly by taking photos of them with a digital camera and then by removing the organs of interest from the plant. A reference herbarium was compiled in order to reconstruct the florae of the plants inventoried at Gribé. The plants thus collected were identified firstly by transposing the vernacular names into commercial names for certain species; then using the floristic works [14] [23] [25]-[27], the online databases https://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/recherche.php; https://uses.plantnetproject.org/en/, specialised websites (Protau4.org) and other data available from the National Herbarium of Cameroon (the vascular plants of Cameroon—A taxonomic checklist with IUCN assessments; compendium of plant names in the ethnic languages of Cameroon). This identification was confirmed by botanists at the National Herbarium of Cameroon. Samples were identified to family, genus and, where possible, species level according to APG IV.

2.2.3. Characterisation of the Surveyed Plant Florula at Gribé

The plant species thus identified were classified by biological type [28] [29], morphological type, phytogeographical type [30]-[32], habitat type [20] and type and mode of spread of diaspores [20] [33]-[35].

2.3. Determination of the Species Mostly in Demand

2.3.1. Processing of Data

The data collected was analysed, then recorded and processed according to the number of quotations and recipes. Each survey sheet contained a single item of information called a “quotation”, which corresponded to a line in the Excel version 213 spreadsheet and included all the information collected from an informant [20] [23] [36]. All the information collected was analysed using the aforementioned spreadsheet, which was then used to calculate frequencies as a percentage of quotations and to generate histograms. Ethnobotanical indices were also calculated.

2.3.2. Calculation of Ethnobotanical Indices

- Ethnobotanical use value (EUV)

The EUV is used to determine which species have a high use value in a given environment. It was used to establish a hierarchy of importance for NTFP source species based on the formula used by [37]:

$V U (k) = \frac{\sum_{i}^{n} S i}{n}$

with:

VU(k): Ethnobotanical use value of a species k within a given use category;

Si: use score assigned by respondent i;

n: Number of respondents for the given use category. The use value of a given species (k), within a given use category, is defined by its average use score within this use category.

- Performance index (PI)

The performance index (PI) is used to highlight the most significant uses of a recipe for treating a disease. In the comparison between the florula (small flora) indicated to treat a given disease and the overall medicinal flora, the hypothesis tested (null hypothesis in the statistical sense) is that for a given therapeutic indication (disease), the list of plants cited for its treatment results from a random draw from the medicinal flora. (C1) was considered as the number of citations of the plant for a specific disease, (C2) as the total number of citations of the plant for all diseases, (C3) as the number of citations of a specific disease for all species, (C4) as the total number of citations, (P1) = C1/C2: the observed proportion, (P2) = C3/C4: the theoretical proportion as well as the performance index (PI). The proportions (for the species) measured for the medicinal flora are considered as theoretical proportions (P2%) and compared with those observed for the flowering plant cited against the chosen disease (P1%). The difference observed between these two proportions (D = P1 − P2) indicates whether or not the sample analysed is a random sample of the medicinal flora; the direction of the difference makes it possible to decide whether the group studied is preferred (D > 0) or rejected (D < 0). The proportions used here are ratios of the number of citations [20] [23]. For example, if P1% of citations of a species are collected as antimalarials, P1 is compared with P2%, the percentage of all citations of this species present in the medicinal flora. This shows whether the species studied is statistically preferred or rejected in the flora cited for its use as an antimalarial. Taking D = 0 as the minimum performance threshold for a species and 1 as the maximum value, a performance index (Ip) is proposed using an arbitrary scale ranging from 0 to 3 such that:

Ip = 0, if D < 0: Zero performance;

Ip = 1, if 0 ≤ D < 1/3: Average performance;

Ip = 2, if 1/3 ≤ D < 2/3: High performance;

Ip = 3, if D ≥ 2/3: Very high performance.

2.4. Monitoring Households in Their Harvesting Activities

The farmer was followed in his daily activity around the village or in the forest to describe the practices of harvesting plant organs. This practice was characterised by photographs and a description of the harvesting technique by the farmer. Two main harvesting methods were selected [38] [39]. These were gathering and picking. These methods are sometimes combined for certain organs such as fruit. When, for this heading, the same informant mentioned either picking or collecting, the information was noted as picking/collecting. Picking involves cutting the stem, scraping, debarking and piercing the tree. Individuals whose plant organs are picked will be traumatised and therefore more vulnerable than those whose parts fall to the ground. Trees that have been completely felled are more vulnerable than those that have been partially limbed.

3. Results

3.1. Socio-Demographic Profile of Respondents

This survey included 76 of 168 households (45.23%), with a total of 178 informants participating in interviews. Of these respondents, 117 (65.74%) were men. Three age groups, including young people [20 - 40], adults [40 - 60] and the elderly [60 - 85], were defined to determine the age of respondents in the households. The results show that the elderly (81, 45.50%) are among the most represented informants, followed by (69, 38.76%) and 15.73% young people. The majority of informants in Gribé are Baka (149 Baka informants compared with 29 Konabembé informants). Four major activities, including gathering and/or collecting (77 informants, i.e. 43.25%), agriculture (58 informants, i.e. 32.58%), traditional medicine (29 informants, i.e. 16.29%) and hunting (7.88%), occupy the daily lives of these informants. However, in 71.00% of cases, the informants in the Gribé village practised at least 2 of the 4 activities.

3.2. Different Uses of NTFPs in Gribé

Plants are used in Gribé for three main purposes: food, medicine and services. A total of 85 plant species were mentioned in 867 citations for these different uses. Figure 3 illustrates the proportions of plants listed by use category and frequency of mention. Medicinal plants (62) are the most important in terms of number of species (60.19%) but the least important in terms of number of citations (21.34%).

3.2.1. Edible Plants

Nineteen wild plant species were identified as being consumed by Baka households. These were used to prepare 23 culinary recipes for 401 citations. The edible uses to which these are put and the organs used for these uses (Table 1). Analysis of this table shows that the edible plants consumed by the Baka of Gribé are used in six ways, of which snacks (10 plant species mentioned in 177 citations) and condiments/spices (5 plant species for 170 citations) are the most frequently mentioned. The fruits of 14 of the species mentioned 313 times by the informants are

Figure 3. NTFP use categories at Gribé.

Figure 4. Organs used to make recipes based on edible plants.

Table 1. Edible plants surveyed in Gribé.

Scientific names

Names ver/com

Families

Edible uses

Requested parties

Floristic characteristics

veg

TBI

Afrostyrax lepidophyllus Mildbr.

Guimba (grand)

Huaceae

Sar

Zoo

Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels

Mgbé/ Ebom

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Baillonella toxisperma Pierre

Mabé

Sapotaceae

Sar

Zoo

Chrysophyllum lacourtianum De Wild.

Abam

Sapotaceae

Sar

Zoo

Chytranthus atroviolaceus Baker f. ex Hutch.

Tokomboli

Sapindaceae

Sar

Zoo

Cola acuminata (P. Beau.) Schott & Endl.

Mbanga

Sterculiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Dioscorea burkilhana J. Miège

Kéké

Dioscoreaceae

Fal

Pan

Pte

Ane

Dioscorea cayenensis Lam.

Igname jaune

Dioscoreaceae

Fal

Pte

Ane

Garcinia kola Heckel

Cola

Clusiaceae

Sar

Ane

Gnetum africanum Welw.

Koko

Gnetaceae

Scle

Ane

Irvingia excelsa Mildbr.

Payo

Irvingiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Irvingia gabonensis (Aub. Lec. ex O’R) Bail.

Pféké

Irvingiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Panda oleosa Pierre

Kana/ Afana

Pandaceae

Sar

Zoo

Raphia regalis Becc.

Kpwa djambo,

Arecaceae

Ssb

Hyf

Sar

Zoo

Scorodophloeus zenkeri Harms

Mingaignai/Olom

Fabaceae

Sar

Zoo

Trichoscypha acuminata Engl.

Ngoyo

Anacardiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Trichoscypha arborea (A. Chev.) A. Chev.

Amvout/ Boudeu

Anacardiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Vitex thyrsiflora Baker

Pko-ndombi

Lamiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Heckel

Gobo/ Njangsang

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Key: ap = appetizers, sp = condiment/spice, md = maindish, dk = drink, oil = oil, veg = vegetable, fr = fruit, tu = tubers, ex = exudate, le = leaves, bk = bark, BT = Biological type (Tr = Tree, Ag = Annual grass, Pg = Perennial grass, Sb = Shrub, Li = Liana, Usb = Sub shrub), TBI = Type of biotope (Pf = Primary forest, Fal = Forest fallow, Hyf = Hydromorphous forest, Cul = Culture), PT = Phytogeographic type (Gc = Guineo-Congolese Central, Am = Afro-Malgache, Wg = Western Guinean, Sz = Sudanese-Zambesian), DT = Diaspora type (Sar = Sacochore, Pte = Pterochore, Scle = Sclerochore), MD = Modes of dissemination of diaspores (Zoo = zoochory, Ane = anemochory), Nq = Number of quotes.

the organs most often used to prepare the recipes cited by the Gribé informants. Leaves and tubers accounted for 13.73% and 8.82% respectively (Figure 4). Panda oleosa (Pandaceae), was frequently cited (17.57%), followed by Gnetum Africanum (13.86%), Afrotyrax lepidophyllus (13.62%), Irvingia gabonensis (9.24%) and Trichoscypha acuminata (9.00%). All these species belong to 15 families, including Anacardiaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Irvingiaceae and Sapotaceae with two species each (Table 1).

3.2.2. Medicinal Plants

Sixty-two plant species have been identified as medicinal plants. They belong to 32 families, the most represented of which are Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Annonaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Apocynaceae and Zingiberaceae, with 8, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3 and 3 species each respectively. Of the plants cited as medicinal plants in Gribé households, some are only used as associated plants in recipes. Elaeis guineensis Jacq. and Capsicum frutescens L., mentioned 16 and 17 times respectively, are used exclusively as secondary plants in the preparation of medicinal recipes. Alstonia boonei (28 citations) is the most popular cited medicinal species in Gribé, followed by Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. (19 mentions), Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum. & Thonn.) Taub. (9 mentions), Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb. (8 mentions), Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague (6 mentions) and Diospyros crassiflora Hiern. (5 mentions). The surveyed medicinal plants in Gribé are used to treat sixteen illnesses or therapeutic indications, of which malaria (21.62%), diarrhoea (11.89%) and kidney ailments (11.35%) are the most frequently cited (Figure 5). In addition, the diseases treated by plants mentioned by the Gribé people fall into eight main disease groups, including the group of infectious and parasitic diseases (M.inf.par.) (28 plants), the group of sensitivities, symptoms and ill-defined states (Sén.sym.m.d.) (27 plants), Diseases of the genital-urinary organs (M.org.gé-uri.) (19 plants requested) and Diseases of the digestive system (M.ap.dig.) (10 plants requested) are the most important (Table 2).

Treated diseases or therapeutic indications

Nineteen illnesses or therapeutic indications emerged from the surveys of Baka households in Gribé. The diseases are illustrated in Figure 5, which shows the compartment occupied by each disease. Malaria (20.63%), kidney ache (13.76%), headache (11.64%), stomachache (10.58%) and dysentery (10.05%) occupy the most important compartments. Gonorrhoea, respiratory problems and gastric ulcers (0.53% each) occupied the smallest compartments (Figure 5).

Plant organs of medicinal plants

The organs used to prepare plant-based medicines are bark, leaves, fruit, roots and exudates. Of these organs, bark is the most frequently used, accounting for 62.85% (Figure 6). Leaves and fruits represented 17.14% and 15.23% respectively. The barks of Alstonia boonei were cited 28 times, those of Pycnanthus angolensis 08 times, while the fruits of Elaeis guineensis and Capsicum frutescens were cited 19 and 11 times respectively by the Baka of Gribé (Table 2).

Pharmaceutical forms and routes of administration

To prepare phytomedicines, the Baka of Gribé uses seven pharmaceutical forms: decoction, maceration, ash, juice, raw organ, powder and ointment. Decoctions are the most used forms (43.00% of recipes), followed by macerations and ashes,

Table 2. Medicinal plants surveyed in the Gribé community.

Scientific names

Names ver/com

Families

Major disease groups

Requested parties

Floristic characteristics

Drs

Dds

Ipd

Dnss

Dgo

Dbn

Ses

Dsct

TBI

Aframomum daniellii (Hook. f.)

Ndiyi

Zingiberaceae

Sar

Zoo

Aframomum melegueta (Roescoe) K. Schum.

Mbongo, Ndong/ Tondo

Zingiberaceae

Sar

Zoo

Afrostyrax lepidophyllus Mildbr.

Guimba

Huaceae

Sar

Zoo

Albizia zygia (DC.) J. F. Macbr.

Bamba

Fabaceae

Bar

Aut

Alstonia boonei De Wild.

Gouga/ Emien

Apocynaceae

Pog

Ane

Amphimas pterocarpoides Harms

Ekéla/ Kanga

Fabaceae

Pte

Ane

Angylocalyx vermeulenii De Wild.

Yonga

Fabaceae

Sar

Zoo

Annickia affinis (Exell) Versteegh & Sosef

Epouhé

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl.

Mgbé/ Ebom

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Anopyxis klaineana (Pierre) En.

Booma

Rhizophoraceae

Sar

Zoo

Campylospermum elongatum (Oliv.) Tiegh.

Djalla

Ochnaceae

Sar

Zoo

Capsicum frutescens L.

Alambanatolo

Solanaceae

Ssb

Cul

Pan

Sar

Zoo

1 + 10

Celtis mildbraedii Engl.

Ngombé

Cannabaceae

Sar

Zoo

Chrysophyllum lacourtianum De Wild.

Bamboo/ Koloka

Sapotaceae

Sar

Zoo

Corynanthe pachyceras K. Schum.

Mocha/ Wassassa

Rubiaceae

Scle

Ane

Croton oligandrus Pierre ex Hutch.

Dengo

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Key: Drs (D.rsp.sys.) = Diseases of the respiratory system, Dds (D.dig.sys.) = Diseases of the digestive system, Ipd (Inf.par.D.) = Infectious and parasitic diseases, Dnss (D.ner.sys.s.org.) = Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs, Dgo (D.ge-uri.org.) = Diseases of the genital-urinary organs, Dbn (D.bn.sf.org.) = Diseases of the bones and soft organs, Ses (Sen.sym.ill.d.) = Sensitivity, symptoms and ill-defined states, Dsct (D.s.cc.t.) = Diseases of skin and cellular tissue, fr = fruit, tu = tubers, ex = exudate, le = leaf, bk = bark, BT = Biological type (Tr = Tree, Ag = Annual grass, Pg = Perennial grass, Sb = Shrub, Li = Liana, Ssb = Sub shrub),TBI = Type of biotope (Pf = Primary forest, Fs = Secondary forest, Fal = Forest fallow, Hyf = Hydromorphous forest, Cul = Culture), PT = Phytogeographic type (Gc = Guineo-Congolese Central, Am = Afro-Malgache, Wg = Western Guinean, Pan = Pan-tropical), DT = Diaspora type (Sar = Sacochore, Pte = Pterochore, Bar = Barochore, Pog = Pogonochore), MD = Modes of dissemination of diaspores (Zoo = Zoochory, Ane = Anemochory, Aut = Autochory), Nq = Number of quotes.

Scientific names

Names ver/com

Families

Major disease groups

Requested parties

Floristic characteristics

Drs

Dds

Ipd

Dnss

Dgo

Dbn

Ses

Dsct

TBI

Cylicodiscus gabunensis Harms

Bolouma

Fabaceae

Bar

Aut

3 + 1

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf

Meniang

Zingiberaceae

Cul

Pan

Scle

Ane

0 + 2

Diospyros crassiflora Hiern

Lembè

Ebenaceae

Sar

Zoo

Discoglypremna caloneura

(Pax) Prain

Djilla

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Drypetes gossweileri S.Moore

Gbologa

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Duboscia macrocarpa Bocq.

Goulouma

Malvaceae

Sar

Zoo

Duguetia staudtii (Engl.& Diels) Chatrou

Molombo

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

Mbila

Arecaceae

Ssb

Cul

Sar

Zoo

0 + 16

Elaeophorbia drupifera

(Thonn.)Stapf

Songolibila

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Entandrophragma cylindricum

(Sprague)Sprague

Boyo

Meliaceae

Pte

Ane

5 + 1

Eremomastax speciosa

(Hochst.)Cufod.

Twosides

Acanthaceae

Rud

Scle

Ane

Ficus pseudomangifera Hutch.

Bongo

Moraceae

Sar

Zoo

Greenwayodendron suaveolens

(Engl.&Diels)Verdc.

Gbotunga

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Hunteria umbellate (K. Schum.) Hallier f

Modanga

Apocynaceae

Sar

Zoo

Irvingia gabonensis

Pféké

Irvingiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Key: Drs (D.rsp.sys.) = Diseases of the respiratory system, Dds (D.dig.sys.) = Diseases of the digestive system, Ipd (Inf.par.D.) = Infectious and parasitic diseases, Dnss (D.ner.sys.s.org.) = Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs, Dgo (D.ge-uri.org.) = Diseases of the genital-urinary organs, Dbn (D.bn.sf.org.) = Diseases of the bones and soft organs, Ses (Sen.sym.ill.d.) = Sensitivity, symptoms and ill-defined states, Dsct (D.s.cc.t.) = Diseases of skin and cellular tissue, fr = fruit, tu = tubers, ex = exudate, le = leaf, bk = bark, BT = Biological type (Tr = Tree, Ag = Annual grass, Pg = Perennial grass, Sb = Shrub, Li = Liana, Ssb = Sub shrub), TBI = Type of biotope (Pf = Primary forest, Fs = Secondary forest, Fal = Forest fallow, Hyf = Hydromorphous forest, Cul = Culture), PT = Phytogeographic type (Gc = Guineo-Congolese Central, Am = Afro-Malgache, Wg = Western Guinean, Pan = Pan-tropical), DT = Diaspora type (Sar = Sacochore, Pte = Pterochore, Bar = Barochore, Pog = Pogonochore), MD = Modes of dissemination of diaspores (Zoo = Zoochory, Ane = Anemochory, Aut = Autochory), Nq = Number of quotes.

Scientific names

Names ver/com

Families

Major disease groups

Requested parties

Floristic characteristics

Drs

Dds

Ipd

Dnss

Dgo

Dbn

Ses

Dsct

TBI

Klainedoxa gabonensis Pierre ex Engl.

Bokoko

Irvingiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Macaranga monandra Müll. Arg.

Moussassa

Euphorbiaceae

Scle

Ane

Maesopsis eminii Engl.

Londo

Rhamnaceae

Sar

Zoo

Manniophyton fulvum Mull. Arg.

Kpwo koussa

Euphorbiaceae

Bar

Aut

Maranthochloa purpurea (Ridley) Milne-Redh.

Boboko/Pondo Gouassa,

Marantaceae

Sar

Zoo

Massularia acuminata (G. Don) Bullock ex Hoyle

Mindo

Rubiaceae

Sar

Zoo

3 + 1

Microdesmis puberula Hook. f. ex. Planch

Pfipfi

Pandaceae

Sar

Zoo

Milicia excelsa (Welw.) Berg

Bangui

Moraceae

Sar

Zoo

Millettia sanagana Harms

Nganda

Fabaceae

Bar

Aut

Mitragyna ledermannii (K. Krause) Ridsdale

Langango/ Mouèssè

Rubiaceae

Hyf

Sar

Zoo

Monodora crispata Engl. & Diels

Djingo

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Musanga cecropioides R. Br.

Kombo

Moraceae

Sar

Zoo

Myrianthus arboreus P. Beauv.

Ngatta

Moraceae

Sar

Zoo

Nephrolepis biserrata (SW.) Schott

cobo (fougère)

Dryopteridaceae

Scle

Ane

Omphalocarpum elatum Miers.

Mbaté

Sapotaceae

Sar

Zoo

Panda oleosa Pierre

Kana/ Afana

Pandaceae

Sar

Zoo

Scientificnames

Names ver/com

Families

Major disease groups

Requested parties

Floristic characteristics

Drs

Dds

Ipd

Dnss

Dgo

Dbn

Ses

Dsct

TBI

Penianthus longifolius Miers

Mennispermaceae

Ssb

Sar

Zoo

Picralima nitida (Stapf) T. Durand & H. Durand

Motokotoko

Apocynaceae

Gsz

Sar

Zoo

Plagiostyles africana (Müll. Arg.) Prain

Ngolé

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb.

Etengué

Myristicaceae

Sar

Zoo

Ricinodendron heudelotii

Gobo

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Rinorea dentata (P. Beauv.) Kuntze

Sandjabongo

Violaceae

Sar

Zoo

Rourea obliquifoliolata Gilg.

Toukoussa

Connaraceae

Sar

Zoo

Santiria trimera (Oliv.) Aubrév.

Libaba

Burseraceae

Sar

Zoo

Scepocarpus trinervis (Hochst.) T. Wells & A. K. Monro

Madjembè

Urticaceae

Pal

Sar

Zoo

Schumanniophyton magnificum (K. Schum.) Harms

Gogologo

Rubiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels

Ngolou

Combretaceae

Pte

Ane

Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum. & Thonn.) Taub.

Djaga

Fabaceae

Bar

Aut

Thomandersia hensii De Wild. & T. Durand

Ngoka

Acanthaceae

Bar

Aut

Trichoscypha acuminata Engl.

Ngoyo

Anacardiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Zanthoxylum gilleti (De Wild.) Wattermani

Bolongo

Rutaceae

Sar

Zoo

Key: Drs (D.rsp.sys.) = Diseases of the respiratory system, Dds (D.dig.sys.) = Diseases of the digestive system, Ipd (Inf.par.D.) = Infectious and parasitic diseases, Dnss (D.ner.sys.s.org.) = Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs, Dgo (D.ge-uri.org.) = Diseases of the genital-urinary organs, Dbn (D.bn.sf.org.) = Diseases of the bones and soft organs, Ses (Sen.sym.ill.d.) = Sensitivity, symptoms and ill-defined states, Dsct (D.s.cc.t.) = Diseases of skin and cellular tissue, fr = fruit, tu = tubers, ex = exudate, le = leaf, bk = bark, BT = Biological type (Tr = tree, Ag = annual grass, Pg = perennial grass, Sb = shrub, Li = liana, Ssb = sub shrub),TBI = Type of biotope (Pf = Primary forest, Fs = Secondary forest, Fal = Forest fallow, Hyf = Hydromorphous forest, Cul = Culture), PT = Phytogeographic type (Gc = Guineo-Congolese Central, Am = Afro-Malgache, Wg = Western Guinean, Pan = Pan-tropical), DT = Diaspora type (Sar = Sacochore, Pte = Pterochore, Bar = Barochore, Pog = Pogonochore), MD = Modes of dissemination of diaspores (Zoo = Zoochory, Ane = Anemochory, Aut = Autochory), Nq = Number of quotes.

Key: Malaria(Mal), Kidneyache (Kac), Headache (Hac), Stomachache (Sac), Dysentery (Dys), Hernia (Her), Toothache (Tac), Cold (Cld), Hemorrhoids (Hem), Cough (Cgh), Eye ache (Eac), Obstetrical difficulties (Obd), Wounds (Wds), Asthenia (Ast), Swollen feet (Sft), Ear ache (Erac), Gonorrhea (Gon), Respiratory problems (Rsp), Gastric ulcer (Gul).

Figure 5. Proportion of diseases treated and therapeutic indications.

Figure 6. Proportion of plant parts used in recipes.

with 17.00% and 16.00% respectively.

Phytomedicines derived from the above pharmaceutical forms are administered orally (67.00% of citations), dermally (9.00%), rectally (8.00%), by scarification (intradermally) (7.00%), ocularly (4.00%) and nasally (3.00% of citations).

Plant performance according to the diseases treated

Plant performance was determined according to the diseases treated. However, only plants with high performance (Ip = 2) and very high performance (Ip = 3) were included in Table 3. Thus, of the 17 high-performance plants indicated against malaria, only 8 showed good performance (Ip = 2). Santiria trimera and Schumanniophyton magnificum performed very well (Ip = 3) against dysentery. Chrysophyllum lacourtianum and Elaeophorbia drupifera performed very well against toothache (Table 3).

Table 3. Plant performance according to diseases treated.

Diseases	Plants	Ip	Diseases	Plants	Ip
Malaria	Alstonia boonei	2	Toothache	Chrysophyllum lacourtianum	3
	Celtis mildbraedii	2		Elaeophorbia drupifera	3
	Entandrophragma cylindricum	2		Mitragyna ledermannii	2
	Irvingia gabonensis	2		Panda oleosa	2
	Monodora crispata	2		Penianthus longifolius	2
	Ricinodendron heudelotii	2		Terminalia superba	2
	Terminalia superba	2	Hernia	Albizia zygia	2
	Zanthoxylum gilleti	2		Annickia affinis	3
Soreeyes	Aframomum melegueta	2		Hunteria umbellata	2
	Amphimas pterocarpoides	2		Maesopsis eminii	2
	Scepocarpus trinervis	2		Massularia acuminata	2
	Thomandersia hensii	2		Musanga cecropioides	2
	Angylocalyx vermeulenii	2		Picralima nitida	2
Stomachache	Croton oligandrus	3	Hemorrhoids	Anonidium mannii	3
	Entandrophragma cylindricum	3	Hemorrhoids	Hunteria umbellata	2
	Greenwayodendron suaveolens	2	Dysentery	Angylocalyx vermeulenii	2
	Maranthochloa purpurea	2		Greenwayodendron suaveolens	2
	Terminalia superba	2		Klainedoxa gabonensis	2
Headache	Drypetes gossweileri	2		Maesopsis eminii	2
	Milicia excelsa	2		Manniophytom fulvum	2
	Monodora crispata	3		Maranthochloa purpurea	2
	Rourea obliquifoliolata	3		Plagiostyles africana	3
Kidney pain	Afrostyrax lepidophyllus	3		Santiria trimera	3
	Anopyxis klaineana	3		Schumanniophyton magnificum	3
	Campylospermum elongatum	3	Asthenia	Corynanthe pachyceras	2
	Diospyros crassiflora	2	Asthenia	Rinorea dentata	2
	Drypetes gossweileri	2	Gonorrhea	Aframomum daniellii	3
	Entandrophragma cylindricum	2	Gonorrhea	Maesopsis eminii	3
	Tetrapleura tetraptera	3	Earache	Aframomum daniellii	2
	Trichoscypha acuminata	3	Earache	Hunteria umbellata	2

3.2.3. Service Plants

Nineteen plant species were identified as service plants. They belong to 15 families, of which Annonaceae, Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Fabaceae each have 2 species (Table 4). Of the plant species listed as service plants, Marantochloa cordifolia (K. Schum.) Koechlin (45 citations) is the most popular. It is followed

Table 4. Service plants found in the Gribé populations.

Scientific names

Names ver/com

Families

Types of use

Requested parties

Floristic characteristics

Cma

Ama

Mcu

Pac

Fur

br/tr

BTI

Cleistopholis glauca Pierre ex Engl. & Diels

Sembequi

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Corynanthe pachyceras K. Schum.

Wassassa

Rubiaceae

Scle

Ane

Detarium macrocarpum Harms

Mbili

Fabaceae

Sar

Zoo

Drypetes aframensis Hutch.

Olelam

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Entandrophragma cylindricum Sprague

Boyo

Meliaceae

Pte

Ane

Gongronema latifolium Benth.

Asclepiadaceae

Sar

Zoo

Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & Diels) Verdc.

Gbotunga

Annonaceae

Sar

Zoo

Heisteria zimmereri Engl.

Molomba,

Olacaceae

Sar

Zoo

Irvingia gabonensis

Pféké

Irvingiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Laccosperma secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) Kuntze

Kawo

Arecaceae

Sar

Zoo

Marantochloa cordifolia (K. Schum.) Koechlin

Boboko2

Marantaceae

Sar

Zoo

Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) Webster

Kango

Euphorbiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Massularia acuminata (G. Don) Bullock

Mindo

Rubiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Benth.) Milne-Redh.

Ngongo

Marantaceae

Sar

Zoo

Millettia sanagana Harms

Nganda

Fabaceae

Bal

Aut

Raphia regalis Becc.

Kpwa/Péké

Arecaceae

Hyf

Sar

Zoo

Streblus usambarensis (Engl.) C. C. Berg

Ndoundou

Moraceae

Sar

Zoo

Strychnos spinosa Lam.

Monkey Orange

Loganiaceae

Sar

Zoo

Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels

Ngolou

Combretaceae

Pte

Ane

Key: Cma = Construction material, Ama = Agricultural material, Mcu = Kitchen material, Pac = Packaging, Fur = Furniture, fr = fruit, st = stem, ro = root, le = leaf, bk = bark, br/tr = branch/trunk, BT = Biological type (Tr = Tree, Ag = Annual grass, Pg = Perennial grass, Sb = shrub, Li = Liana, Ss = Sub shrub), BTI = Biotope type (Pf = Primary forest, Fs = Secondary forest, Ff = Forest fallow, Hyf = Hydromorphic forest), PT = Phytogeographic type (Gc = Centro-Guineo-Congolese, Am = Afro-Malgache, WG = Western Guinean), DT = diasporous type (Sar = Sacochore, Pte = Pterochore, Bal = Ballochore), MD = Modes of dissemination of diaspores (Zoo = Zoochory, Ane = Anemochory, Aut = Autochory), Nq = Number of quotes.

by Entandrophragma cylindricum Sprague and Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Benth.) Milne-Redh. (33 citations each). Next came Massularia acuminata (G. Don) Bullock (31 citations), Streblus usambarensis (Engl.) C. C. Berget and Detarium macrocarpum Harms (17 citations each), Raphia regalis Becc. (16 citations) and Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. (15 citations) (Table 4).

The service plants surveyed in the Baka households of Gribé gave rise to 23 recipes, of which “digging and pruning the trunk of Entandrophragma cylindricum to obtain the shape of a mortar” and “pruning the branch of Massularia acuminata to obtain a pestle” were the most cited, with 30 and 29 citations respectively. The recipes for “covering huts with Marantochloa cordifolia leaves” and “using Marantochloa cordifolia leaves to wrap products” were cited by 22 and 21 households respectively.

The various recipes were prepared to satisfy five main uses. Figure 7 illustrates the types of use of service plants and shows the number of plants requested for each use. Interpretation of this figure shows that product packaging (43.32%) is the most frequently cited use in Baka households in Gribé.This use calls for 7 plants (i.e. 33.33% of the plants requested). Six plants (i.e. 28.57% of species) are solicited for the use of construction material, which represents only 12.00% of the uses mentioned by the Baka of Gribé (Figure 7).

Key: Emb = Packaging, Mcu = Kitchen equipment, Mco = Construction equipment, Mag = Agricultural equipment, Meu = Furniture.

Figure 7. Proportion of service plant uses.

Plant organs of service plants

In their use of service plants, Baka households in Gribé make use of six plant parts, which include: branches and/or trunks, buttresses, leaves, stems, bark and fruit. Of these organs or parts, branches/trunks, leaves and stems are the most frequently used, with frequencies of quotation of 37.63%, 34.05% and 22.22% respectively (Figure 8).

3.2.4. Floristic Characteristics of Plants Used in Baka Households in Gribé

The surveyed florula in the Baka households of Gribé were characterised by biological types, phytogeographical distribution types as well as diaspora distribution types and modes.

Six morphological types were distinguished, including trees (Ar), shrubs (Aa), sub-shrubs (Sa), lianas (Lia), perennial grasses (Hv) and annual grasses (Ha). The 53 trees represent 62.35% of the morphological types. They are followed by shrubs (11 or 12.94%) and lianas (9 or 10.59%). Annual grasses represent only 1.18% (Figure 9).

Figure 8. Plant parts of service plants.

Key: Trees (Tr), Shrubs (Sb), Sub-shrubs (Ss), Liana (Lia), Perennial herbs (Ph), Annual herbs (Ah).

Figure 9. Morphological types.

Six habitat types are home to the NTFPs cited in the Baka households of Gribé. These are very little disturbed dense forest species (primary forests) (72.94%), disturbed dense forest species (secondary forests) (17.65%), hydromorphic forest species (2.35%), cultivated species (3.53%), fallow species (2.35%) and ruderal species (1.18%). Forest species, numbering 79, account for 92.94% of species cited in Baka households in Gribé, and among species of other biotopes, cultivated species, of which there are 03, are the most represented (Figure 10).

Eight phytogeographical types were distinguished among the plants cited by the Baka of Gribé. These were Afromalagasy (2.35%), Afrotropical (5.88%), Centroguineo-Congolese (77.65%), Guinean and Sudano-Zambian (1.18%), Western-Guinean (4.71%), Palaeotropical (1.18%), Pantropical (3.53%) and Sudano-Zambian (3.53%) species. Endemic species (Gc, At, Wg, Pan, Am and Gsz) dominate (95.29%), with 66 of them being Centroguineo-Congolian (Figure 11).

Key: Primary forest (Pf), Secondary forest (Sf), Hydromorphic forest (Hyf), cultivated species (Cul), Fallow (Fal), Ruderale species (Rud), Forest species (For Sp), Other biotopes species (Biot Sp).

Figure 10. Habitat types of species inventoried at Gribé.

Key: Esp Endo = Endogenous species, Esp Exot = Exotic species, Gc = Centro-Guineo-Congolese, Am = Afro-Malagasy, At = Afro-tropical, Wg = Western Guinean, Pan = Pan-tropical, Paleo = Paleo-tropical, Gsz = Guineo-Sudano-Zambezian, Sz = Sudano-Zambezian.

Figure 11. Phytogeographical distribution of species used in Baka households in Gribé.

Six types of diaspora were distinguished among the NTFPs cited by Baka households in Gribé. These were ballochores (5.88%), barochores (1.18%), pogonochores (1.18%), pterochores (5.88%), sarcochores (78.82%) and sclerochores (7.06%). Sarcochores are spread by zoochory, which at 78.82% is the main mode of dissemination. Sclerochores, pterochorores and pogonochores are spread by wind (anemochory), accounting for 14.12% of the modes of spread (Figure 12).

3.3. Relative Importance of Plant Species in Usage

Figure 13 illustrates the relative importance of plant species in the plant uses of Baka households in Gribé. Species with a percentage ≥ 2 are shown. Marantochloa cordifolia is the most important species cited in the uses of Baka households. It accounts

Key: Sarcochores (Sar), Barochores (Bar), Ballochores (Bal), Pogonochores (Pog), Sclerochores (Scl), Pterochores (Pte), Anemochoria (Ane), Autochoria (Aut), Zoochoria (Zoo).

Figure 12. Types and methods of diaspora dissemination.

Figure 13. Relative importance of plant species in uses.

for 7.1% of citations. Next come Panda oleosa with 6.1%, and Entandrophragma cylindricum with 6.00% of citations.

The ethnobotanical use values of the species identified in the Baka households of Gribé were calculated. Fourteen species have the most significant use values. In ascending order, they are Entandrophragma cylindricum (VU = 1.25), Massularia acuminata (VU = 1.13), Panda oleosa (VU = 1.03), Gnetum africanum (VU = 1.00), Marantochloa cordifolia (VU = 0.94), Trichoscypha acuminata (VU = 0.91), Irvingia gabonensis (VU = 0. 81), Anonidium mannii (VU = 0.78), Greenwayodendron suaveolens (0.78), Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (VU = 0.75), Megaphrynium macrostachyum (VU = 0.78), Detarium macrocarpum (VU = 0.56), Raphia regalis (VU = 0.56), Streblus usambarensis (VU = 0.56). Table 5 shows the species with use values greater than or equal to 0.1 (VU ≥ 0.1).

3.4. Description of Organ Harvesting Activities

Harvesting practices were described in terms of three parameters: plant organs harvested, harvesting methods and techniques, and harvesting areas. Eight plant organs were harvested by the Gribé people to make the various recipes. Figure 14 illustrates the frequency with which the different plant organs taken from the plants used in Gribé are cited. The figure shows that when the parameter “species from which the organs are taken” is taken into account, bark is the most frequently cited (43.24%). Bark was used for 48 species. On the other hand, when it comes to the “revenue” parameter, fruit (33.76%) is the organ most used (Figure 14). Surveys on the availability or otherwise of plant organs requested by the Gribé populations reveal that they are available (66.45%) (much more so for leaves and bark), seasonal (28.21%) (for fruit), rare (3.63%) (for roots and trunks) and very rare (1.71%) (for trunks).

Figure 15 illustrates the harvesting methods and techniques observed. Picking (54.06%) was the harvesting method most commonly used by the Gribé populations. In the picking mode, the figure illustrates a number of harvesting techniques: scraping the bark (1.91%), debarking the tree (19.48%), notching the bark (2.18%), stripping leaves and stems (19.04%), uprooting (1.83%), cutting branches (7.60%) and felling the tree (2.01%). Collecting fruit and/or seeds.

Trunks and/or branches were the most popular areas for harvesting organs (61.38%). The debarking technique used in these areas was monitored and described. Figure 15 shows the different debarking techniques. Analysis of this figure shows that 1/4 debarking is the technique most widely used by farmers. Anarchic debarking (21.00%) is practised and anhelation of the tree represents only 1.00% of the practices adopted by the Gribé farmers (Figure 16).

4. Discussion

This study highlighted the different uses of wild plants in Baka communities, more specifically in the village of Gribé in the East Cameroon Region. The surveys carried out in Gribé involved 178 informants, 65.74% of whom were men aged

Table 5. Ethnobotanical use value of plant species found in Baka households in Gribé.

Species no.	Plantspecies	VU
1	Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague.	1.25
2	Massularia acuminata (G. Don) Bullock ex Hoyle	1.13
3	Panda oleosa Pierre	1.03
4	Gnetum africanum Welw.	1.00
5	Marantochloa cordifolia (K. Schum.) Koechlin	0.94
6	Trichoscypha acuminata Engl.	0.91
7	Irvingia gabonensis (Aub. Lec. ex O’R) Bail.	0.81
8	Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels	0.78
9	Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & Diels) Verdc.	0.78
10	Afrostyrax lepidophyllus Mildbr.	0.75
11	Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Benth.) Milne-Redh.	0.78
12	Detarium macrocarpum Harms	0.56
13	Raphia regalis Beec	0.56
14	Streblus usambarensis (Engl.) C. C. Berg	0.56
15	Alstonia boonei De Wild.	0.47
16	Baillonella toxisperma Pierre	0.47
17	Corynanthe pachyceras K. Schum.	0.41
18	Dioscorea burkilhana Miège	0.41
19	Dioscorea cayenensis subsp. rotundata (poir.) J. Miège	0.41
20	Laccosperma secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) Küntze	0.38
21	Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels	0.31
22	Trichoscypha arborea (A. Chev.) A. Chev.	0.31
23	Gongronema latifolium Bonth.	0.25
24	Diospyros crassiflora Hiern	0.22
25	Strychnos spinosa Lam	0.22
26	Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum. & Thonn.) Taub.	0.22
27	Croton oligandrus Pierre ex Hutch.	0.19
28	Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb.	0.19
29	Drypetes gossweileri S. Moore	0.16
30	Hunteria umbellata (K. Schum.) Hallier f.	0.16
31	Aframomum daniellii (Hook. f.) K. Schum.	0.13
32	Annickia affinis (Exell) Versteegh & Sosef	0.13
33	Cleistopholis glauca Pierre ex Engl. & Diels	0.13
34	Cylicodiscus gabunensis Harms	0.13

Key: F = Frequency, fr = Fruits, tu = Tubers, ex = Exudates, le = Leaves, bk = Bark, ro = Roots, st = Stems, Br/tr = Branches/trunks.

Figure 14. Plant organs used in Gribé households.

Key: Pic = Picking, Ram = Ramming, Pic/ram = Picking/ramming.

Figure 15. Harvesting techniques adopted by the populations of Gribé.

Figure 16. Debarking techniques used by Gribé farmer.

between [40 - 85[ years (84.26%). They lived mainly from gathering and/or collecting (43.25%), but were also farmers, traditional healers and hunters. These results are similar to those of [12], who found in a survey of medicinal plants in Gribé that 68.18% of respondents were men. [39] found similar results. Although women are much more involved in gathering and collecting organs, men are more dependent on the use of plants. Older men have very in-depth knowledge of plant use, which they share independently of kinship when it comes to edible plants or services, whereas knowledge of medicinal plants remains within the nuclear family [39]-[41].

Furthermore, the high proportion of adults (38.76%) testifies to the great interest in perpetuating knowledge about the virtues and uses of plants. This also testifies to the important place that NTFPs occupy within rural communities, irrespective of the age and profession of the people living there [42]-[45].

The Baka people of Gribé have a good knowledge of the resources and names of the species in their natural environment. The vernacular names of the various species inventoried are sufficient proof of the strong relationship that exists between this community and the species that surround them. [24] has already pointed out the importance of exploiting the plants available in the biotope closest to the farmers, which would enable them to obtain more quickly the organs they need to prepare their recipes. In addition, Betti et al. point out that people living near the forests of the Congo Basin are very familiar with the species in their ecosystems, as well as the different uses they can make of them [46]. However, given the short period over which the surveys were conducted, there is a high probability that the use of certain species will escape the respondents’ memory, especially if they are rarely consumed during the interview period. [12] inventoried 132 species simply for medicinal use, which is twice the number of species surveyed in this study for the same use.

The work of [39], which was carried out over a long period and focused on the Baka peoples of various villages in eastern Cameroon, identified four times as many species for edible use as were identified in this study for the same purpose. However, species such as moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), cola nut (Cola acuminata), bitter cola (Garcinia kola), koko (Gnetum africanum), bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis), Njangsang (Ricinodendron heudelotii), aidon tree (Tetrapleura tetraptera) and kana (Panda oleosa) identified in this study have all been reported in the works of [46] and [39] as having high scores. [42] and [47] already found in their work that Cola acuminate, Ricinodendron heudelotii and Irvingia spp. were the most prominent species after Dacryodes edulis in terms of both quantity and value.

Sixty-two plant species have been recorded as medicinal plants in Gribé. They belong to 32 families, the most represented being Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Annonaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Apocynaceae and Zingiberaceae. In their work on the use of medicinal plants by the Baka of southern and eastern Cameroon, [48] already presented the Fabaceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Apocynaceae as the most representative families of medicinal species. [12] arrived at similar results to Gribé. The predominance of these families shows that the village of Gribé belongs to the dense humid semi-caducifoliate forests. It also reveals the interest that African pharmacopoeia places in these families, which provide it with numerous bioactive compounds of interest [21] [49] [50].

Alstonia boonei is the most popular medicinal species at Gribé. It is followed by Greenwayodendron suaveolens and Tetrapleura tetraptera. [12] also find that Alstonia boonei is a much sought-after medicinal species in Gribé. Afiong et al. confirmed this result [48]. The bark of Ekouk (Alstonia boonei) contains indole alkaloids (Echitamine and Echitamidine) and terpene compounds that have not only antimicrobial but also anti-inflammatory properties [51] [52]. The bark of this plant is highly prized in the treatment of malaria with chronic diarrhoea. It is all the more effective when combined with Entandrophragma cylindricum and Hunteria umbellata bark in the treatment of this condition.

Elaies guineensis and Capsicum frutescens with 16 and 17 citations respectively are the third and fourth medicinal plants of interest in Gribé. [12] [21] [48] [49] also find that these two plants are of great interest in traditional Cameroonian pharmacopoeia. The results show that in Gribé, they are used exclusively as auxiliary or adjuvant ingredients in recipes. The combination of these plants in medicinal recipes reinforces the therapeutic action of the main components of these recipes and treats the secondary symptoms of the disease. Elaies guineensis palm kernel oil is a powerful antipyretic, reducing fever in children. The Baka women of Gribé also mention that this oil is a powerful antihistamine. It is mixed with Piper umbellatum leaves and used as a suppository to treat haemorrhoids [49]. The capsaicin present in Capsicum frutescens is thought to have an anti-inflammatory effect comparable to that of diclofenac [53]. In addition, the phenolic and terpene compounds in the small cayenne pepper are thought to give it remarkable properties, which could justify its antimicrobial and antifungal activities [54].

Of the eight disease groups found, the Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (IPD) group (28 plants) is the most represented. It alone accounts for the contribution of 27 plants. Within this disease group, malaria and dysentery accounted for 20.63% and 10.05% respectively of ailments recorded at Gribé. A number of plants performed well in treating these conditions. These included Alstonia boonei, Celtis mildbraedii, Entandrophragma cylindricum, Irvingia gabonensis, Monodora crispata, Ricinodendron heudelotii for malaria and Angylocalyx vermeulenii, Greenwayodendron suaveolens, Klainedoxa gabonensis, Maesopsis eminii, Manniophytom fulvum, Maranthochloa purpurea, Plagiostyles africana, Santiria trimera, Schumanniophyton magnificum for dysentery. Recourse to these plants is justified by the absence of health centers, their remoteness or, precisely, by the lack of financial means to travel to them. Pharmacopoeia would thus be the alternative of choice for primary health care. [20] [24] [55] already reported that these two diseases were the most commonly treated by plants sold in urban markets in rural areas, precisely among the Baka of southern and eastern Cameroon, malaria and diarrhoea have also been reported as the diseases most frequently treated by the plants inventoried [48]. The results of [12] and [48] confirm Cameroon’s status as a malaria-endemic zone. [56] also finds that Alstonia boonei is a plant indicated for the treatment of malaria. [48] [55] find with the same index (Ip = 2) that this plant performs well in treating this disease. However, although [12] listed malaria as one of the most common illnesses in Gribé, it does not appear in the results of these authors as the illness most treated by Gribé plants. Instead, they found sexual weakness, cough, backache and asthenia to be the illnesses most commonly treated with Gribé plants, with malaria ranking only eighth.

The bark is the plant organ most frequently used in recipes where the main preparation method is decoction. Along with roots, bark is the ideal storage organ for bioactive compounds [21] [49]. Moreover, their non-seasonal characteristics make them organs that are always available, compared with flowers and fruits. Leaves also play a key role in the preparation of plant-based recipes. They are the place where bioactive metabolites are synthesized, and for this reason, some Baka respondents mentioned that the ideal time to harvest the leaves to be used in preparing the medicine is “very early in the morning”, when they still concentrate large quantities of active ingredients. In addition to the importance attached to a species, its vulnerability is also correlated with the type of organs used, the way recipes are prepared (especially in the case of medicinal recipes), and the methods and techniques used to harvest the organs. Organs are thus classified, according to their importance for the plant’s survival, into organs whose exploitation is highly detrimental: roots, whole plant, young shoots; organs whose exploitation is detrimental: stem bark and sap; organs whose exploitation is little or not detrimental: leaves, flowers, seeds, nuts, bulbs [57]. As for pharmaceutical forms, liquid medicines have a greater impact on the vulnerability of the species than solid forms, due to their poor preservation, which results in a high level of organ removal. Thus, powders, ashes or ointments can be preserved for longer than macerated or decotted products.

Investigations carried out among Baka households in Gribé identified 23 plant species used as service plants, which were the subject of 29 recipes. Entandrophragma cylindricum, Massularia acuminata and Marantochloa cordifolia are the most widely used species. Stems are the plant parts most used as service plants by Baka households. Branches/trunks, leaves and stems are the most solicited organs with respective citation frequencies of 37.63%, 34.05% and 22.22%. [58] already found that branches and stems were in high demand for handicrafts and habitat construction. Branches and stems are used as support poles, framing poles, hoe handles and traditional axes. Two species, Corynanthe pachyceras and Irvingia gabonensis, are used as support poles, Greenwayodendron suaveolens is used as a framework pole, Entandrophragma cylindricum and Massularia acuminata are used to make mortars, pestles, hoe handles and the traditional Baka axe. These results corroborate those found by [42] and [59].

Fifteen species have multiple uses. They are used either as edible or medicinal plants, or as service and medicinal plants, or as edible and service plants. These include Aframomum daniellii, Afrostyrax lepidophyllus, Anonidium mannii, Chrysophyllum lacourtianum, Corynanthe pachyceras, Entandrophragma cylindricum, Greenwayodendron suaveolens, Irvingia gabonensis, Massularia acuminata, Millettia sanagana, Panda oleosa, Raphia regalis, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Terminalia superba, Trichoscypha acuminata. These plants also showed significant use values (VU ≥ 0.5). Irvingia gabonensis is the only species solicited for all three use categories. [58] already found in the NTFP florule of the Haut-Sassandra classified forest in Côte d’Ivoire that Irvingia gabonensis and Ricinodendron heudelotii were solicited for multiple uses. As well as being medicinal plants, the kernels of these two species are much in demand for cooking sauces to accompany meat or fish dishes, and are therefore highly consumed in urban centers. According to [42], their sale is a significant source of income for Gribé households.

The floristic traits of the species help to determine their vulnerability. The distribution of species according to morphological type shows a strong predominance of woody species (85.88%). Most of these are endemic species (95.29%) from forests (92.94%), spread by zoochory (78.82%). Woody species are highly vulnerable, regenerating very slowly and degenerating very rapidly when poorly exploited awareness-raising and even training of residents in harvesting techniques [38] [21]. The advantage of harvesting these species lies in the fact that they offer the farmer the possibility of having at least one organ available at each time of year, hence the interest in further research into the different organs of woody species. Data on the phytogeographical distribution of the species surveyed in Gribé clearly show that this village belongs to the Guineo-Congolese domain. This result corroborates that linked to the biotope of the species surveyed and shows that the inhabitants of Gribé exploit the plants available in their biotope, enabling them to more rapidly obtain the organs they need to prepare recipes [21] [24] [59]. Furthermore, the rarity of wide-ranging species would indicate a low level of degradation or modification of the landscape. This element could also be an indicator of the conservation of local pharmacopoeia know-how [24]. The importance of zoochorous species shows, on the one hand, their forest origin and, on the other, the important role of wildlife in forest regeneration [23] [38] [49] [50].

Several harvesting techniques impact on the regenerative capacity of the organs, considerably affecting the plant’s development. Anarchic or simple debarking (21.00%) appears to be the most important technique adopted by NTFP operators in Gribé. This technique causes the tree to wither in the more or less long term [60]. In addition, 3/4 debarking (5.00%) and uprooting (1.83%) are techniques that are detrimental to the survival and sustainability of the species. Indeed, harvesting bark from the entire outer circumference of the tree can more or less lead to the tree’s death [61]. Woody species such as Irvingia gabonensis, which are highly prized for their bark and seeds, are under heavy pressure. High-intensity organ harvesting could have an impact on the long-term availability of such species. This phenomenon was observed by [49] when, in a village in central France, excessive debarking of Erythrophleum suaveolens to treat haemorrhoidal ailments led to the disappearance of individuals. Tree trunks are by far the most coveted areas for harvesting organs. The accessibility of an organ influences its use within a community, leading to an increase in the frequency of harvesting and the quantities harvested, which are factors in degradation [62].

5. Conclusions

The indigenous communities of Gribé use the species around them for both food and medicinal purposes. These species also provide many services to Gribé. Aframomum daniellii, Afrostyrax lepidophyllus, Anonidium mannii, Chrysophyllum lacourtianum, Corynanthe pachyceras, Entandrophragma cylindricum, Greenwayodendron suaveolens, Irvingia gabonensis, Massularia acuminata, Millettia sanagana, Panda oleosa, Raphia regalis, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Terminalia superba, and Trichoscypha acuminate are put to a wide variety of uses. These species require special attention and harvesting methods that do not undermine their sustainability, especially as NTFPs are vital for the subsistence of the Gribé populations, who are heavily dependent on them.

The unavailability of these products could have a negative impact on the quality of life of these populations. These results show the need to involve local populations in biodiversity management and conservation strategies. Popularising conservation techniques for these species would be an important approach to guaranteeing their availability.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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