JWST Discoveries and the Hypersphere World-Universe Model: Transformative New Cosmology

Vladimir S. Netchitailo

Independent Researcher, Livermore, USA.

DOI: 10.4236/jhepgc.2024.104102                

Abstract

Twenty-six years ago, a small committee report built upon earlier studies to articulate a compelling and poetic vision for the future of astronomy. This vision called for an infrared-optimized space telescope with an aperture of at least four meters. With the support of their governments in the US, Europe, and Canada, 20,000 people brought this vision to life as the 6.5-meter James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The telescope is working perfectly, delivering much better image quality than expected [1]. JWST is one hundred times more powerful than the Hubble Space Telescope and has already captured spectacular images of the distant universe. A view of a tiny part of the sky reveals many well-formed spiral galaxies, some over thirteen billion light-years away. These observations challenge the standard Big Bang Model (BBM), which posits that early galaxies should be small and lack well-formed spiral structures. JWST’s findings are prompting scientists to reconsider the BBM in its current form. Throughout the history of science, technological advancements have led to new results that challenge established theories, sometimes necessitating their modification or even abandonment. This happened with the geocentric model four centuries ago, and the BBM may face a similar reevaluation as JWST provides more images of the distant universe. In 1937, P. Dirac proposed the Large Number Hypothesis and the Hypothesis of Variable Gravitational Constant, later incorporating the concept of Continuous Creation of Matter in the universe. The Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) builds on these ideas, introducing a distinct mechanism for matter creation. WUM is proposed as an alternative to the prevailing BBM. Its main advantage is the elimination of the “Initial Singularity” and “Inflation”, offering explanations for many unresolved problems in Cosmology. WUM is presented as a natural extension of Classical Physics with the potential to bring about a significant transformation in both Cosmology and Classical Physics. Considering JWST’s discoveries, WUM’s achievements, and 87 years of Dirac’s proposals, it is time to initiate a fundamental transformation in Astronomy, Cosmology, and Classical Physics. The present paper is a continuation of the published article “JWST Discoveries—Confirmation of World-Universe Model Predictions” [2] and a summary of the paper “Hypersphere World-Universe Model: Digest of Presentations John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society” [3]. Many results obtained there are quoted in the current work without full justification; interested readers are encouraged to view the referenced papers for detailed explanations.

Keywords

World-Universe Model, JWST Discoveries, Universe-Created Matter, Gravity, Gravitomagnetism, Wave-Particle Duality, Hubble Tension, Stretching of World, Dark Epoch, Luminous Epoch, Axis of Evil

1. WUM vs BBM

It is well-known that any theory is based on certain hypotheses. WUM and BBM are principally different models with fundamentally different hypotheses [3]:

Initial Conditions:

• BBM: Proposes an initial singularity with infinite energy density and extremely rapid expansion of spacetime (inflation). There is no center of expansion in the 3D universe.

• WUM: Suggests a fluctuation in the Universe that created a 4D Nucleus of the World with an extrapolated radius equal to the basic size unit a. This Nucleus had a finite extrapolated energy density (about 10⁴ times less than nuclear density) and expanded in the fourth spatial dimension at the speed c (a gravitodynamic constant), resulting in the even stretching of the World.

Structure of the World:

• BBM: Assumes an almost infinite homogeneous and isotropic universe around the initial singularity.

• WUM: Describes a Finite Boundless World (a Hypersphere of the 4D Nucleus) as a Patchwork Quilt of various main luminous superclusters ($\gtrsim {10}^3$ ), which emerged in different regions of the World at different cosmological times.

Medium of the Universe:

• BBM: Often implies a vacuum state in the early universe.

• WUM: Proposes that the World’s Medium consists of protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and Universe-Created Particles (UCPs), previously referred to as “Dark Matter Particles.” The Medium is homogeneous and isotropic, while the distribution of Macroobjects (MOs) is spatially inhomogeneous, anisotropic, and temporally non-simultaneous. The rejection of the luminiferous aether in 1905 was a significant moment for Classical Physics; however, the Medium proposed by WUM could be considered a revival of this concept, acting as a savior for Classical Physics.

Conservation Laws:

• BBM: Does not explicitly emphasize the creation and conservation of angular momentum in its foundational principles.

• WUM: Stands out as the only cosmological model that provides a mechanism for angular momentum creation and is consistent with the fundamental law of its conservation.

Macroobject Formation:

• BBM: MOs form from the bottom (extrasolar systems) up to galaxies and superclusters.

• WUM: MOs form from the top (superclusters) down to galaxies and extrasolar systems (ESS) due to an Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of Superclusters’ Overspinning Cores (made up of UCPs), which were created by the Universe during the Dark (invisible) Epoch for 0.45 Byr. The formation of galaxies and ESS is not a process that concluded ages ago; instead, it is ongoing.

In conclusion, WUM presents a radically different approach to understanding the World compared to BBM, challenging long-held assumptions, and offering new perspectives on the fundamental nature of Cosmology and Classical Physics. The hypotheses of BBM are mathematical, while those of WUM are more physical in nature. Both models may seem incredible, but there is a key difference: BBM fails to explain many of the experimental results observed by contemporary Astronomy, such as those from the JWST, whereas WUM does! The validity of hypotheses can only be confirmed through experimental results. As R. Feynman famously said, “It doesn’t make any difference how beautiful your guess is, it doesn’t make any difference how smart you are, who made the guess, or what his name is. If it disagrees with experiment, it is wrong. That’s all there is to it.”

2. JWST Discoveries

2.1. Early Experimental Findings (2022) [2]

The problem of ancient galaxies formation is a long-standing problem. The age of the Universe is 13.77 ± 0.06 Byr, based on the cosmic microwave background data. Astronomers believe that Milky Way (MW) galaxy is approximately 13.6 Byr old. MW is one of the two largest spiral galaxies in the Local Group (the other being the Andromeda Galaxy). Massive mature disk galaxies like MW cannot form so soon.

Distances to remote objects, other than those in nearby galaxies, are always inferred by measuring the cosmological redshift of their light. An important distinction is whether the distance is determined via spectroscopy or using a photometric redshift technique. The spectroscopic redshift is conventionally regarded as being necessary for an object’s distance to be considered definitely known, whereas photometrically determined redshifts identify “candidate” distant sources. For comparisons with the light travel distance of the astronomical objects listed below, the age of the universe since the Big Bang (BB) is currently estimated as 13.787 ± 0.020 Byr.

In the article “JWST Discoveries—Confirmation of World-Universe Model Predictions” [2], we discussed Galaxies with $z>10$ (Table 1, Table 2, adapted from Wikipedia).

Table 1. Most distant galaxies with spectroscopic redshift determinations.

Name	Redshift	Light travel distance, Bly
HD1	$z=13.27$	13.579; 13.599; 13.477; 13.476
JADES-GS-z13-0	$z={13.20}_{-0.07}^{+0.24}$	13.576; 13.596; 13.474; 13.473
JADES-GS-z12-0	$z={12.63}_{-0.08}^{+0.24}$	13.556; 13.576; 13.454; 13.453
GLASS-z12	$z={12.117}_{-0.01}^{+0.01}$	13.536; 13.556; 13.434; 13.433
JADES-GS-z11-0	$z={11.58}_{-0.05}^{+0.05}$	13.512; 13.532; 13.410; 13.409
GN-z11	$z={10.957}_{-0.001}^{+0.001}$	13.481; 13.501; 13.380; 13.379
UDFj-39546284	$z={10.38}_{-0.06}^{+0.07}$	13.449; 13.469; 13.348; 13.347

Table 2. Notable candidates for most distant galaxies.

Name	Redshift	Light travel distance, Bly
F200DB-045	$z={20.4}_{-0.3}^{+0.3}$	13.725; 13.745; 13.623; 13.621
CEERS-93316	$z={16.39}_{-0.22}^{+0.32}$	13.661; 13.681; 13.559; 13.558
F200DB-175	$z={16.2}_{-0.0}^{+0.3}$	13.657; 13.677; 13.555; 13.554
S5-z17-1	$z={16.0089}_{-0.0004}^{+0.0004}$	13.653; 13.673; 13.551; 13.550
F150DB-041	$z={16.0}_{-0.2}^{+0.2}$	13.653; 13.673; 13.551; 13.549
SMACS-z16a	$z={15.92}_{-0.12}^{+0.17}$	13.651; 13.671; 13.549; 13.548
F200DB-015	$z={15.8}_{-0.1}^{+3.4}$	13.648; 13.668; 13.546; 13.545

The presented experimental results show that:

• HD1 is one of the earliest and most distant known galaxies yet identified in the observable universe. HD1’s unusually high brightness has been an open question for its discoverers; it has a significantly more luminous ultraviolet emission than similar galaxies at its redshift range [Pacucci, F., et al. (2022)].

• F200DB-045 is a candidate high-redshift galaxy, with an estimated redshift of z = 20.4. If confirmed, it would be one of the earliest and most distant known galaxies observed. F200DB-045 would have a light-travel distance (lookback time) of >13.7 Byr.

Detailed analysis of observations of the first batch of z ≈ 11 - 20 Candidate Objects revealed by JWST is done by H. Yan, et al. (2022). The summary of the JWST discoveries in the Early World is:

• The most secure oldest galaxy is GLASS-z13 (z ≈ 13, light-travel distance of 13.4572 Byr) that has already built up $~{10}^9{M}_{\odot }$ in stars.

• The search of eighty-eight candidate galaxies at z > 11 shows that some of them could be at redshifts as high as twenty. Some of those distant galaxies are strikingly massive.

• Most of the early galaxies are nicely shaped, disklike galaxies.

• A new redshift record obtained for galaxy candidate CEERS-93316 at z = 16.7 (light-travel distance of 13.5512 Byr) with a stellar mass about $~{10}^9{M}_{\odot }$ ;

• Seven galaxies with $M^{*}>{10}^{10}{M}_{\odot }$ and 7 < z < 11 were found in the survey area, including two galaxies with $M^{*}~{10}^{11}{M}_{\odot }$ . The stellar mass density in massive galaxies is much higher than anticipated from previous studies: a factor of more than three orders of magnitude at z∼10.

• Extremely Compact Bright Galaxies were found at z∼12 - 17.

• Super-early, massive, evolved galaxies with blue spectra, and exceedingly small dust attenuation.

2.2. Recent Experimental Findings (2023-2024)

JWST has made several intriguing and unexpected observations that challenge our current understanding of the universe. Here are some of the most interesting:

• C. Ilie, J. Paulin, and K. Freese in the article “Supermassive Dark Star candidates seen by JWST?” [4] wrote: “The first generation of stars in the Universe is yet to be observed. There are two leading theories for those objects that mark the beginning of the cosmic dawn: hydrogen burning Population III stars and Dark Stars, made of hydrogen and helium but powered by Dark Matter heating. We show that each of the following three objects: JADES-GS-z13-0, JADES-GS-z12-0, and JADES-GS-z11-0 (at redshifts z ∈ [11, 14]) are consistent with a Supermassive Dark Star interpretation, thus identifying, for the first time, Dark Star candidates”.

• A new all-time record! JWST’s discovery of JADES-GS-z14-0 pushes the earliest galaxy ever seen to just 290 million years after the Big Bang. This new record-holder is remarkably, unexpectedly bright. Five times brighter than the prior (JADES-GS-z13-0) record-holder, JADES-GS-z14-0 is even shockingly visible to MIRI’s eyes. But this galaxy is extremely dust-poor. The lack of dust inside JADES-GS-z14-0 presents a novel puzzle [5].

• Abundance and Brightness of Early Galaxies: Contrary to predictions, JWST has found that early galaxies, forming just a few hundred million years after BB, are more numerous and brighter than expected. This discovery implies that star formation in the early universe may have been more efficient or occurred in intense bursts. These findings challenge existing models of galaxy formation and evolution [6] [7].

• Discovery of the Earliest and Most Distant Galaxies: JWST has identified galaxies dating back three hundred Myr after BB. These galaxies, such as JADES-GS-z14-0 and JADES-GS-z14-1, are significantly more massive and luminous than anticipated, suggesting that large galaxies formed rapidly in the early universe [8].

• Early Supermassive Black Holes: Observations of galaxies like GN-z11 have revealed the presence of supermassive black holes much earlier in cosmic history than previously thought. These black holes are actively accreting matter, contributing to the high luminosity of these early galaxies. This discovery is puzzling as it indicates rapid black hole growth soon after the universe’s formation [9].

These unexpected observations by JWST are prompting astrophysicists to revise their models of the early universe, galaxy formation, and black hole growth [6]-[9].

JWST has spectroscopically confirmed numerous galaxies at z > 10. J. M. Helton, et al. report photometric detection of the most distant spectroscopically confirmed galaxy JADES-GS-z14-0 at $z={14.32}_{-0.2}^{+0.08}$ . The most plausible solution for the stellar population properties is that this galaxy contains half a billion solar masses in stars with a strong burst of star formation in the most recent few million years. The inferred properties of JADES-GS-z14-0 suggest rapid mass assembly and metal enrichment during the earliest phases of galaxy formation [10].

F. D’Eugenio, et al. present the third data release of JADES. They measured 2375 redshifts: their targets span the range from z = 0.5 to z = 13, including 404 at z > 5. Together, these data provide the largest statistical sample to date to characterize the properties of galaxy populations in the first billion years after BB [11].

A. J. Bunker, et al. describe the NIRSpec component of JADES, and provide deep spectroscopy of 253 sources. Their low-dispersion and medium-dispersion spectra cover the wavelength range 0.6 - 5.3 μm. They measure spectroscopic redshifts for 178 of the objects targeted extending up to z = 13.2. Combined with the first JADES NIRCam data release, these public JADES spectroscopic and imaging datasets provide a new foundation for discoveries of the infrared universe by the worldwide scientific community [12].

M. Xiao, et al. present the first sample of 36 dust-obscured galaxies with robust spectroscopic redshifts at z = 5 - 9 from the JWST FRESCO survey. The three most extreme sources at z∼5 - 6 are so massive that they would require, on average, about 50% of the baryons in their halos to be converted into stars. This population of ultra-massive galaxies accounts for 20% of the total cosmic star formation rate density at z∼5 - 6, suggesting a substantial proportion of extremely efficient star formation in the early Universe [13].

A substantial number of ultra-high redshift (8 < z < 17) galaxy candidates have been detected with JWST, posing the question: are these observational results surprising in the context of current galaxy formation models? Aaron Yung, L. Y., et al. address this question using their fiducial models. They present predictions for stellar mass functions, rest-frame UV luminosity functions, and various scaling relations and find that their (dust-free) models predict galaxy number densities at z~11 (z~13) that are a factor of ~30 lower than the observational estimates [14].

With stunning clarity, JWST has revealed the Universe’s first billion years. The scientific community is analyzing a wealth of JWST imaging and spectroscopic data from that era and is in the process of rewriting the astronomy textbooks. Here, 1.5 years into the JWST science mission, A. Adamo, et al. provide a snapshot of the great progress made towards understanding the initial chapters of our cosmic history. They highlight discoveries and breakthroughs, topics and issues that are not yet understood, and questions that will be addressed in the coming years, as JWST continues its revolutionary observations of the Early Universe [15].

Enceladus is a prime target in a search for life in our Solar System (SS), having an active plume connected to a large liquid water subsurface ocean. Using JWST, G. L. Villanueva, et al. searched for organic compounds and characterized the plume’s composition and structure. The observations directly sample the fluorescence emissions of H₂O and reveal an extraordinarily extensive plume (up to 10,000 km or 40 Enceladus radii) at cryogenic temperatures (25 K) embedded in a large bath of emission originating from Enceladus’ torus. Intriguingly, the observed outgassing rate (300 kg/s) is similar to that derived from close-up observations with Cassini 15 years ago, and the torus density is consistent with previous spatially unresolved measurements with Herschel 13 years ago, suggesting that the vigor of gas eruption from Enceladus has been stable over decadal timescales [16].

These observations are just the beginning, and as JWST continues its mission, it is likely to uncover even more surprising and unexplained phenomena. The data it provides will help refine existing models and theories, leading to a deeper understanding of the universe.

3. Hypersphere World-Universe Model

3.1. Assumptions

WUM is based on the following primary assumptions:

• World is a Finite Boundless three-dimensional Hypersphere of a 4D Nucleus of the World that is expanding along the fourth spatial dimension of the Nucleus with speed equals to the gravitodynamic constant c. The three-dimensional World is curved in the fourth spatial dimension.

• Eternal Universe is a Creator of Universe-Created (UC) Matter (UCM), which is continuously created in the Nucleus of the World. Ordinary Matter is a byproduct of UC Particles (UCPs) self-annihilation.

• Medium of the World is an active agent in all physical phenomena in the World.

• Two fundamental parameters in various rational exponents define all macro and micro features of the World: dimensionless Rydberg constant $\alpha ={\left(2a{R}_{\infty }\right)}^{1/3}$ (where $R_{\infty }$ is the Rydberg constant and $a=1.7705641\times {10}^{-14}\text{m}$ is a basic size unit) and dimensionless time-varying quantity Q that is, in fact, the Dirac’s Large Number. $\alpha$ now named the Fine-structure constant.

3.2. Principal Points

WUM is based on the following principal points:

• Beginning. The World was started by a Fluctuation in the Eternal Universe, and the Nucleus of the World, which is a 4D ball, was born. An extrapolated Nucleus radius at the Beginning was equal to the basic size unit of a. The extrapolated energy density of the World at the Beginning (Q = 1) was four orders of magnitude smaller than the nuclear energy density. The World is a Finite Boundless Hypersphere that is the surface of the 4D Nucleus. All points of the Hypersphere are equivalent; there are no preferred centers or boundaries of the World.

• Stretching of the World. The 4D Nucleus is expanding along Its fourth spatial dimension so that the radius of the Nucleus R is increasing with speed c. Its surface, the Hypersphere, is evenly stretched. The stretching of the Hypersphere World can be understood through the analogy with expanding 3D balloon: imagine an ant residing on a two-dimensional surface of a balloon. As the balloon is blown up, its radius increases, and its surface grows. The distance between any two points on the surface increases. The ant sees her world expand but does not observe a preferred center. Unbeknown to ants, the center is not located on the surface, but instead, is removed along the inaccessible third dimension. It is in the center of the balloon. What does the balloon expand into? It expands in perpendicular “down/up” direction that is inaccessible to perception, and therefore from the surface of the balloon. One cannot point out the direction of the expansion.

Likewise, the three-dimensional Hypersphere World expands along the imperceptible fourth dimension. The Center of the World is in the center of 4D Nucleus, in that very inaccessible fourth dimension. We do not know that our three-dimensional space is curved. But we know that it is stretching without center of stretching. According to WUM, all parameters of the World depending on Q, which is a ratio of radius R to a: Q = R/a are a manifestation of the Worlds’ curvature in the fourth spatial dimension.

• Creation of Matter. The surface of the Nucleus is created in a process analogous to sublimation. Continuous creation of matter is the result of this process. Sublimation is a well-known process that happens when surfaces are intrinsically more energetically favorable than the bulk of a material, and hence there is a driving force for surfaces to be created. The Universe is responsible for the creation of UCM in 4D Nucleus of the World. UCPs carry new UCM into the World. Ordinary Matter is a byproduct of UCPs self-annihilation. By analogy with 3D ball, which has a spherical surface (that has surface energy), we can imagine that Hypersphere World has a “Surface Energy” of 4D Nucleus. The growth of the surface of 4D Nucleus means the increase of the World’s so named “Surface Energy”.

The proposed 4D process is responsible for 4D Nucleus Expansion, the World Stretching, Creation of Matter, and Arrow of Time. It constitutes the Main Hypothesis of WUM. In our view, the arrow of the Cosmological Time does not depend on any physical phenomenon in the Medium of the World. It is the result of the Nucleus expansion due to the driving force for surfaces to be created.

It is important to emphasize that Creation of Matter is a direct consequence of Nucleus expansion. Creation of UCM occurs homogeneously in all points of the Hypersphere World.

• Content of the World. The World consists of the Medium and MOs. Total energy density of the World equals to the critical energy density throughout the World’s evolution. The energy density of the Medium is two-thirds of the total energy density and MOs (Superclusters, Galaxies, ESS, etc.)—one-third in all cosmological times. The relative energy density of UCPs is about 92.8% and Ordinary particles (protons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos)—about 4.8% in the Medium of the World and 2.4% in MOs.

• Rotational Fission. The mechanism that can provide Angular Momenta to MOs is a Rotational Fission of overspinning (surface speed at equator exceeding escape velocity) Prime Objects. From the point of view of Fission model, the prime object is transferring some of its rotational angular momentum to orbital and rotational momenta of satellites. It follows that the rotational momentum of the prime object should exceed the orbital momentum of its satellite. In WUM, prime objects are UCM Cores of Superclusters, which must accumulate tremendous rotational angular momenta before the Birth of a Luminous World. It means that it must be some long enough time in the history of the World, which we named “Dark Epoch.”

• Dark (invisible) Epoch spans from the Beginning of the World 14.22 Byr ago to 0.45 Byr (for Laniakea Supercluster that is a home to MW) when only UCM Macroobjects existed.

• Luminous Epoch has lasted ever since 13.77 Byr when Luminous MOs emerged due to random Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of Overspinning UCM Supercluster’s Cores, which looks like a Firework of UCM cores of satellite objects at the same time, so that the direction of the sum of satellites angular momentum coincides with the angular momentum of the Prime Object. There are no preferences of directions of satellites rotations at any level (supercluster, galaxy, extra solar system) vs random rotation direction. UCM Cores of Prime Objects detonate at critical points of their stability,

• Macroobjects Shell Model. MOs of the World possess the following properties: their Cores are made up of UCPs; they contain other particles, including UCPs and Ordinary particles, in shells surrounding the Cores. Introduced Weak Interaction between UCPs and Ordinary particles provides integrity of all shells.

• UC Matter Reactors. MOs’ cores are UCM Reactors fueled by UCPs. All chemical elements, compositions, radiation are produced by MOs themselves as the result of UCPs self-annihilation in their UCM cores. Nucleosynthesis of all elements occurs inside of MOs during their evolution.

• Macroobjects Formation. Superclusters are the principal objects of the World. MOs (Superclusters, Galaxies, and ESS) form in parallel around different Cores made up of different UCPs. The Finite Boundless World presents a Patchwork Quilt of different main Luminous Superclusters ($\gtrsim {10}^3$ ), which emerged in various places of the World at different Cosmological times. The distribution of MOs in the World is spatially inhomogeneous and anisotropic and temporally non-simultaneous. Macrostructures of the World form from the top (superclusters) down to galaxies, ESS, planets, and moons.

• Macroobjects Evolution. The formation of galaxies and stars is not a process that concluded ages ago; instead, it is ongoing. Assuming the Eternal Universe, numbers of cosmological structures on all levels will increase; new superclusters will form; existing clusters will obtain new galaxies; new stars will be born inside existing galaxies; sizes of individual stars will increase.

3.3. Most Direct Observational Evidence of Validity of WUM

1) Microwave Background Radiation (MBR), Intergalactic Plasma, and Far-Infrared Background Radiation speak in favor of existence of the Medium of the World.

2) Laniakea Supercluster (LS) with binding mass $~{10}^{17}{M}_{\odot }$ is home to MW and ~ 10⁵ other nearby galaxies, which did not start their movement from Initial Singularity. Neighboring superclusters are Shapley, Coma, and Perseus-Pisces. Distance from the Earth to the Centre of LS is ~ 250 Mly (see Figure 1 and Figure 2).

Figure 1. Laniakea Supercluster. Adapted from article by Tully, R. B., et al. [17].

Figure 2. A representation of structure and flows due to mass within ~80 Mpc.

3) MW is gravitationally bounded with the Virgo Supercluster and has an orbital Angular Momentum calculated based on distance of 65 Mly from the Virgo Supercluster and the orbital speed of ~400 km·s⁻¹, which far exceeds rotational Angular Momentum of MW.

4) Mass-to-light ratio of the Virgo Supercluster is ~300 times larger than that of Solar ratio. Similar ratios are obtained for other superclusters. These ratios are main arguments in favor of the presence of significant amounts of UC Matter in the World.

5) Astronomers discovered the most distant galaxies HD1 and JADES-GS-z14-0, which are ~13.5 Bly away, and a candidate galaxy F200DB-045 that is ~13.7 Bly away.

Medium of the World, UC Matter, and Angular Momentum are the main Three Pillars of WUM. To the best of our knowledge, WUM is the only cosmological model that aligns with the Law of Creation and Conservation of Angular Momentum. The presented view of the World represents a fundamental change in the field of Cosmology.

3.4. Medium of the World

WUM introduces the Medium of the World, which consists of stable elementary particles with lifetimes longer than the age of the World: protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and UCPs. The Medium is Homogeneous and Isotropic. The existence of the Medium is a principal point of WUM. There is no Luminiferous Aether, Perfect fluid, or Vacuum in WUM. Inter-galactic voids discussed by astronomers are, in fact, examples of the Medium in its purest. MBR is part of the Medium; it then follows that the Medium is the absolute frame of reference. Relative to MBR rest frame the MW galaxy and the Sun are moving with the speed of 552 and 370 km·s⁻¹, respectively.

Time, Space and Gravitation are connected with Impedance, Gravitomagnetic parameter, and Energy density of the Medium, respectively. It follows that neither Time, Space nor Gravitation could be discussed in absence of the Medium. WUM confirms the Supremacy of Matter postulated by A. Einstein: When forced to summarize the theory of relativity in one sentence: time and space and gravitation have no separate existence from matter. There is no Medium—there is Nothing!

WUM based on Cosmological time $\tau$ that marches on at the constant pace from the Beginning of the World up to the modern Epoch along with time-varying Cosmological parameters. Gravity is not an interaction but a manifestation of the Medium.

3.5. Universe-Created Matter

In my previous articles, I followed the standard paradigm “Dark Matter” that is not quite right for WUM, in which the World consists of particles of Ordinary Matter: protons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos. On the other hand, there are particles created by the Universe—UCPs of a new kind of “Universe-Created Matter” (UCM). In 2024, I introduced a new term—UCPs, which have following characteristics: UC Fermions (UCF) or Bosons, Rest Energies (see Table 3), Weak Interaction, and Self-annihilation, like Majorana fermions. Ordinary particles are a byproduct of UCPs self-annihilation. It is easy to switch from Dark (D) Matter to Universe-Created (UC) Matter.

Table 3. Universe-created particles.

Fermion			Boson
Particle	Rest Energy	Value	Particle	Rest Energy	Value
UCF1	${\alpha }^{-2}{E}_0$	1.3149948 TeV	DIRAC	${\alpha }^0{E}_0$	70.025252 MeV
UCF2	${\alpha }^{-1}{E}_0$	9.5959804 GeV	ELOP	$2/3{\alpha }^1{E}_0$	340.66596 keV
UCF3	${\alpha }^2{E}_0$	3.7289394 keV	XION	$1/2{\alpha }^6{E}_0$	5.2870895 μeV
UCF4	${\alpha }^4{E}_0$	0.19857107 eV

In this table, a Basic Energy Unit $E_0$ equals to:

$E_0=hc/a=70.025252\text{MeV}$

where h is the Planck constant and c is the Gravitodynamic constant. These particles are “dark”, optically invisible, when astronomers observe the World with telescopes only.

The contemporary Astronomy allows us to observe the World in wavelengths from radio waves up to gamma rays! Then, they are not “dark” at all. The first known binary system was Cygnus X-1(1971) that is typically the brightest persistent source of hard X-rays with energies up to sixty keV. In 2000, R. Minchin, et al. discovered binary galaxy system VIRGOHI 21 with NGC 4254, which has the 21-cm emission.

These two kinds of Matter have different origin of radiations:

• Ordinary Matter radiates Electromagnetic waves from Radio waves up to X-rays by electrons outside nuclei. Lawrence Livermore scientists probed nitrogen gas at X-ray energies of up to eight keV, the highest X-ray energy ever used at an X-ray free electron laser.

• UC Matter radiates Gamma rays, which are emitted by nuclei, as a result of self-annihilation of UCPs with rest energies, covering eighteen orders of magnitude (see Table 3).

WUM proposes multicomponent UCM system consisting of two couples of co-annihilating UCPs: a heavy fermion UCF1 (1.3 TeV) and a light spin-0 boson— DIRAC (70 MeV) that is a dipole of Dirac’s monopoles with charge $\mu =e/2\alpha$ (e is an elementary charge and $\alpha$ is dimensionless Rydberg constant); a heavy fermion UCF2 (9.6 GeV) and a light spin-0 boson—ELOP (340 keV) that is a dipole of preons with electrical charge e/3; fermions UCF3 (3.7 keV) and UCF4 (0.2 eV), and boson XION (5.3 μeV).

The reason for this multicomponent UCM system was to explain:

• The diversity of Very High Energy gamma-ray sources in the World.

• The diversity of UCM Cores of Macroobjects of the World (Superclusters, Galaxies, and ESS), which are Fermion Compact Objects and UCM Reactors in WUM.

UCPs do not possess an electric charge. Their masses cannot be directly measured by mass spectrometry. Hence, they can be observed only indirectly. The signatures of UCPs self-annihilation with expected rest energies of 1.3 TeV; 9.6 GeV; 70 MeV; 340 keV; 3.7 keV; 0.2 eV; 5.3 μeV are found in spectra of diffuse gamma-ray background and the emissions of various MOs in the World [2]. We connect observed gamma-ray spectra with the structure of MOs (nuclei and shells composition). Self-annihilation of those UCPs can give rise to any combination of gamma-ray lines. Thus, the diversity of Very High Energy gamma-ray sources in the World has a clear explanation.

3.6. Gravity

Le Sage’s Theory of Gravitation is a kinetic theory of gravity originally proposed by Fatio in 1690 and later by Le Sage in 1748. The theory proposed mechanical explanation for Newton gravitational force in terms of streams of tiny unseen particles (which Le Sage called ultra-mundane corpuscles) impacting all material objects from all directions. According to this model, any two material bodies partially shield each other from the impinging corpuscles, resulting in a net imbalance in the pressure exerted by the impact of corpuscles on the bodies, tending to drive the bodies together.

Le Sage proposed quantitative estimates for some of the theory’s parameters:

• He called the gravitational particles ultra-mundane corpuscles because he supposed them to originate beyond our known universe. It was a genius prediction of Universe-Created Particles XIONs in WUM! The distribution of ultramundane flux is isotropic, and laws of its propagation are similar to that of light.

• He suggested that the ultra-mundane corpuscles might move at the speed of light.

• To maintain mass proportionality, ordinary matter consists of cage-like structures, in which their diameter is only the 10⁷ th part of their mutual distance, so the particles can travel through them unhindered. In order to achieve exact mass proportionality as in Newton’s theory, the ultra-mundane flux must be infinitely intense.

Le Sage’s theory is the very first theory, which defines the Gravity as an emergent phenomenon.

In WUM, the time-varying Gravitational parameter $G\propto {\tau }^{-1}$ is proportional to the energy density of the Medium ${\rho }_M\propto {\tau }^{-1}$ . It is not a constant. That is why WUM aligns Gravity with Le Sage’s theory of gravitation. WUM gives for Le Sage’s theory the following parameters:

• XIONs (5.3 μeV) are ultra-relativistic UCPs (“ultramundane corpuscles”), which created by the Universe.

• Proposed Weak interaction between XIONs and Matter provides mass pro-portionality. Energy density of XIONs in the World is about 64% of the total energy density and provides high intensity of their flux.

• Gravitational mass $m_g$ is a classical notion that defines Gravity—the emergent phenomenon. We emphasize that an inertial mass $m_i$ that is a coefficient of proportionality between a force F and an acceleration a: $F=m_{i}a$ , has nothing to do with $m_g$ .

A. Einstein developed General theory of Relativity starting with the assumption that the inertial and passive gravitational masses are the same. This is known as the equivalence principle.

In WUM, Gravity is not an interaction but a manifestation of the Medium.

3.7. Principal Role of Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell’s Equations form the foundation of Classical Electrodynamics and Gravitomagnetism. The value of Maxwell’s Equations is even greater because J. Swain showed that linearized general relativity admits a formulation in terms of gravitoelectric and gravitomagnetic fields that closely parallels the description of the electromagnetic field by Maxwell’s equations. We emphasize that Gravitomagnetism considers not only interactions between masses but also between mass currents.

G. Ludwig in a paper “Galactic rotation curve and dark matter according to gravitomagnetism” [18] wrote: Most theories used to explain the rotation curve have been restricted to the Newtonian potential framework, disregarding the general relativistic corrections associated with mass currents. The effects attributed to dark matter can be simply explained by the gravitomagnetic field produced by the mass currents.

The explanation of galactic rotation curves made by G. Ludwig is in good agreement with WUM.

3.8. Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters

The constancy of universe fundamental constants, including G, is now commonly accepted, although has never been firmly established as a fact. A commonly held opinion states that gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in other areas of physics.

WUM holds that there indeed exist relations between all Cosmological parameters that depend on dimensionless time-varying quantity Q that is a measure of the Size R and Age $A_{\tau }$ of the World according to the equation:

$Q=\frac{R}{a}=\frac{A_{\tau }}{t_0}$

where $t_0$ is a basic time unit: $t_0=a/c$ . Q in the modern epoch equals to:

$Q=0.759972\times {10}^{40}$ .

According to WUM, the following parameters of the World depend on Q:

• Newtonian parameter of gravitation G: $G=\frac{a^2{c}^4}{8\pi hc}\times Q^{-1}$

• Hubble’s parameter H: $H=\frac{c}{a}\times Q^{-1}$

• Age of the World $A_{\tau }$ : $A_{\tau }=\frac{a}{c}\times Q$

• The Worlds’ Radius of curvature R: $R=a\times Q$

• Critical energy density ${\rho }_{cr}$ : ${\rho }_{cr}=3\frac{hc}{a^4}\times Q^{-1}$

• Concentration of Intergalactic plasma $n_{IGP}$ : $n_{IGP}=\frac{2{\pi }^2}{a^3}\frac{m_e}{m_p}\times Q^{-1}$

• Minimum energy of photons $E_{ph}$ : $E_{ph}={\left(\frac{m_e}{m_p}\right)}^{1/2}{E}_0\times Q^{-1/2}$

• Temperature of MBR $T_{MBR}$ : $T_{MBR}=\frac{E_0}{k_B}{\left(\frac{15\alpha }{2{\pi }^3}\frac{m_e}{m_p}\right)}^{1/4}\times Q^{-1/4}$

• Temperature of Far-Infrared Background Radiation peak $T_{FIRB}$ : $T_{FIRB}=\frac{E_0}{k_B}{\left(\frac{15}{4{\pi }^5}\right)}^{1/4}\times Q^{-1/4}$

In frames of WUM, all these Cosmological parameters are a manifestation of the Worlds’ curvature in the fourth spatial dimension. They can be calculated based on experimentally measured value of $G_{av}$ and $Q_{av}$ (see Section 3.10).

3.9. Directly Measured Cosmological Parameters

There are only two directly measured Cosmological parameters: the Gravitational parameter G and the Temperature of the Cosmic MBR $T_{MBR}$ . Q. Li, et al. experimentally measured the most accurate values of G using two independent methods [19]

$G\left(1\right)=6.674184\times {10}^{-11}{\text{m}}^3\cdot {\text{kg}}^{-1}\cdot {\text{s}}^{-2}\left(11.64\text{ppm}\right)$

$G\left(2\right)=6.674484\times {10}^{-11}{\text{m}}^3\cdot {\text{kg}}^{-1}\cdot {\text{s}}^{-2}\left(11.61\text{ppm}\right)$

which are in excellent agreement with the value of $G=6.67420\times {10}^{-11}{\text{m}}^3\cdot {\text{kg}}^{-1}\cdot {\text{s}}^{-2}$ predicted by WUM in 2013. In 2009, D. J. Fixsen measured the value of MBR temperature $T_{MBR}$ :

$T_{MBR}=2.725181\text{K}\left(30\text{ppm}\right)$

It means that the most accurate parameter is G, and all other Cosmological parameters could be, in principle, calculated based on the value of G with the same accuracy. Thanks to the revealed by WUM Inter-Connectivity of Cosmological parameters, we show that G that can be measured directly makes measurable all Cosmological parameters, which cannot be measured directly.

3.10. Gravitational Parameter G and Dirac Large Number Q

Considering equations in Section 3.8, we have the following equation for G:

$G=\frac{a^2{c}^4}{8\pi hc}\times Q^{-1}$

An average value of Gravitational parameter $G_{av}$ of experimentally measured values by Q. Li, et al.

$G_{av}=\frac{G\left(1\right)+G\left(2\right)}{2}=6.674334\times {10}^{-11}{\text{m}}^3\cdot {\text{kg}}^{-1}\cdot {\text{s}}^{-2}$

allows us to calculate the value of $Q_{av}$ based on the value of $G_{av}$ :

$Q_{av}=\frac{a^2{c}^4}{8\pi hc}\times G_{av}^{-1}=0.759944\times {10}^{40}$

Below, we will use this value of $Q_{av}$ for a calculation of all Cosmological parameters.

3.11. Intergalactic Plasma

In WUM, the World consists of stable elementary particles. Protons with mass $m_{p }$ and electrons with mass $m_{e }$ have identical concentrations: $n_p=n_e$ . According to Plasma Physics, Intergalactic plasma consisting of protons and electrons has plasma frequency${\omega }_{pl}$ :

${\omega }_{pl}^2=\frac{4\pi n_e{e}^2}{4\pi {\epsilon }_0{m}_e}=2n_{e}a{c}^2$

We substitute the following equation ${\omega }_{pl}^2=\frac{m_e}{m_p}{\left(2\pi {\nu }_0\times Q^{-1/2}\right)}^2$ into this equation (where ${\nu }_0$ is a basic frequency unit ${\nu }_0=c/a$ ) and calculate concentrations $n_p$ and $n_e$ :

$n_p=n_e=\frac{2{\pi }^2}{a^3}\frac{m_e}{m_p}\times Q^{-1}=0.255{\text{m}}^{-3}$

${\rho }_p=n_p{E}_p$ is the energy density of protons in the Medium. The relative energy density of protons in the Medium ${\Omega }_p$ is then the ratio of ${\rho }_p/{\rho }_{cr}$ , which equals to:

${\Omega }_p=2{\pi }^2\alpha /3=4.8\text{\%}$

According to WUM, the relative energy density of baryons in Macroobjects ${\Omega }_{MO }$ is:

${\Omega }_{MO}=0.5{\Omega }_p={\pi }^2\alpha /3=2.4\text{\%}$

Measurements of Intergalactic plasma parameters can be done by investigations of Fast Radio Bursts, which are millisecond duration radio signals originating from distant galaxies. These signals are dispersed according to precise physical law and this dispersion is a key observable quantity that in tandem with a redshift measurement, can be used for physical investigations.

The dispersion measure and redshift, conducted by E. F. Keane, et al. in 2016, provide the measurement of the cosmic density of ionized baryons in the intergalactic medium ${\Omega }_{IGM }$ that equals to:

${\Omega }_{IGM}=4.9\pm 1.3\%$

that is in excellent agreement with the predicted by WUM in 2013 value of ${\Omega }_{p }=4.8\%$ . Using the equation for electrons’ concentration $n_e$ , we calculated the value of photons’ time delay:

$\Delta t_{ph}^{cal}=2.189\times {\left(\frac{\nu }{1\text{GHz}}\right)}^{-2}$

which is in good agreement with experimentally measured value by E. Keane, et al.,:

$\Delta t_{ph}^{exp}=2.438\times {\left(\frac{\nu }{1\text{GHz}}\right)}^{-2}$

3.12. Minimum Energy of Photons

Analysis of Intergalactic plasma shows that the value of the lowest plasma frequency ${\nu }_{min}$ is:

${\nu }_{min}={\nu }_0{\left(\frac{m_e}{m_p}\right)}^{1/2}\times Q^{-1/2}=4.53228\text{Hz}$

Photons with energy smaller than $E_{ph}=h{\nu }_{min}$ cannot propagate in plasma. Thus, $h{\nu }_{min}$ is the smallest amount of energy a photon may possess, which equals to the value:

$E_{ph}={\left(\frac{m_e}{m_p}\right)}^{1/2}{E}_0\times Q^{-1/2}=1.87433\times {10}^{-14}\text{eV}$

This value, predicted by WUM in 2013, is in good agreement with a value obtained by L. Bonetti, et al. in 2017:

$E_{ph}\lesssim 2.2\times {10}^{-14}\text{eV}$

3.13. Origin of Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (MBR)

According to BBM, the photons that existed at the time of photon decoupling (380,000 years after BB) have been propagating ever since, though growing fainter and less energetic, since the expansion of space causes their wavelength to increase over time. These photons are the same photons that we see in MBR now. But then, why is MBR is a perfect black-body? What is the mechanism of photons wavelength increasing over time and growing fainter and less energetic?

According to WUM, wavelength is a classical notion. Photons, which are quantum objects, have only four-momenta. They do not have wavelengths. By definition, Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment. In WUM, the black-body spectrum of MBR is due to thermodynamic equilibrium of photons with Intergalactic plasma, the existence of which is experimentally proved by Fast Radio Bursts. It explains why MBR is a perfect black-body radiation.

${\rho }_e=n_e{E}_e$ is the energy density of electrons in the Medium. We assume that the energy density of MBR ${\rho }_{MBR}$ equals to twice the value of ${\rho }_e$ (due to two polarizations of photons) and consider the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

${\rho }_{MBR}=2{\rho }_e=4{\pi }^2\alpha \frac{m_e}{m_p}{\rho }_0\times Q^{-1}=\frac{8{\pi }^5}{15}\frac{k_B^4}{{\left(hc\right)}^3}{T}_{MBR}^4$

where $k_B$ is the Boltzmann constant. The calculated value of $T_{MBR}$ is:

$T_{MBR}=\frac{E_0}{k_B}{\left(\frac{15\alpha }{2{\pi }^3}\frac{m_e}{m_p}\right)}^{1/4}\times Q^{-1/4}=2.725245\text{K}$

which is in excellent agreement with experimentally measured value of 2.72548 ± 0.00057 K by D. J. Fixsen in 2009.

Let us proceed to calculate the value of $T_{MBR}$ at different Ages of the World $A_{\tau }$ (see Table 4).

Table 4. The value of $T_{MBR}$ at different Ages of the World.

Age	$T_{MBR}$
0.45 Byr (Beginning of Luminous Epoch)	6.47747 K
9.6 Byr (Birth of SS)	3.01403 K
14.22 Byr (Modern Epoch)	2.725245 K

Observe that all Macroobjects—galaxies, stars, planets, moons—have arisen in the cold World. Our SS, for instance, was created when the temperature of MBR was about 3 K. Therefore, any Model describing creation of Macroobjects must hold true in the cold World conditions.

3.14. Far-Infrared Background Radiation

The cosmic Far-Infrared (Far-IR) Background Radiation, which was announced in 1998, is part of the Cosmic Infrared (IR) Background with wavelengths near one hundred microns that is the peak power wavelength of the black-body radiation at temperature 29 K. We calculate the temperature of its peak $T_{FIRB}$ :

$T_{FIRB}={\left(15/4{\pi }^5\right)}^{1/4}{E}_0/k_B\times Q^{-1/4}=28.955\text{K}$

that is in an excellent agreement with experimentally measured value of 29 K.

3.15. Hubble’s Parameter and Age of the World

The most important parameters in Cosmology are the Hubble’s parameter $H_0$ and the Age of the World $A_{\tau }$ , which we can calculate by the following equations:

$H_0=\frac{8\pi hc}{a^3{c}^3}\times G_{av}=68.73\text{km}\cdot {\text{s}}^{-1}\cdot {\text{Mpc}}^{-1}$

$A_{\tau }=\frac{1}{H_0}=\frac{a^3{c}^3}{8\pi hc}\times G_{av}^{-1}=14.22\text{Byr}$

We emphasize that the Hubble’s parameter $H_0$ and absolute Age of the World $A_{\tau }$ are determined by the experimentally measured value of $G_{av}$ !

3.16. Hubble Tension

The results of measurements of the Hubble’s constant $H_0$ , which characterizes the expansion rate of the universe, shows that the values of $H_0$ vary significantly depending on Methodology. The disagreement in the values of $H_0$ obtained by the various teams far exceeds the standard uncertainties provided with the values. This discrepancy is called the Hubble Tension.

In frames of WUM, the Hubble tension can be explained the following way:

• Hubble’s law in Standard Cosmology is valid for BBM only when all galaxies start their movement from a single point named “Initial Singularity” that is not the case in WUM. The main conjecture of BBM: “Projecting galaxy trajectories backwards in time means that they converge to the Initial Singularity at t = 0 that is an infinite energy density state” is wrong because all Galaxies are gravitationally bound with their Superclusters.

• In WUM, the three-dimensional Finite Boundless World presents a Patchwork Quilt of different Luminous Superclusters, which emerged at various places and Cosmological times.

• The redshift of the Centre of the Laniakea Supercluster is 0.0708. But it does not mean that it is moving away from MW. On the contrary, MW is moving away from the Centre of Supercluster. Some galaxies are moving toward MW, and the others are moving away (see Figure 1). Then redshift depends on the position and movement of a particular galaxy in the Supercluster against MW.

The more complicated situation with redshift is when galaxies belong to neighboring superclusters (see Figure 2). No wonder that according to S. Gupta, over 8300 blue-shifted galaxies have been discovered beyond the Local Group in 2009. The Andromeda Galaxy is the nearest major galaxy to MW which is blue-shifted. How to explain all these results in standard cosmology?

According to WUM, the value of H should be measured based on MBR only. The calculated value of the Hubble’s parameter in 2013: $H_0=68.73\text{km}\cdot {\text{s}}^{-1}\cdot {\text{Mpc}}^{-1}$ is in excellent agreement with the most recent measured value in 2021: $H_0=68.7\pm 1.3\text{km}\cdot {\text{s}}^{-1}\cdot {\text{Mpc}}^{-1}$ using only MBR data.

4. WUM Explanation of JWST Discoveries

Latest observations by JWST of the World can be explained in frames of WUM only:

• It is a question of time! The Beginning of the World was 14.22 Byr ago! Dark Epoch, when only UCM Macroobjects existed, lasted for 0.45 Byr. Luminous Epoch has existed ever since 13.77 Byr.

• Early-galaxies formed in near present configuration as the result of transition from Dark Epoch to Luminous Epoch due to the Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of Overspinning UCM Supercluster’s Cores and self-annihilation of UCPs. Ordinary Matter is a byproduct of UCPs self-annihilation. There are no pro-togalaxies in the World. That is why JWST did not see their images.

• Compact Disk Galaxies emerged as a result of the Rotational Fission of the overspinning UCM Core of Superclusters. Each of them have one UCM Core. There were no frequent mergers of galaxies in the early epoch.

• According to Standard Cosmology, massive mature disk galaxies with mass up to $M^{*}~{10}^{11}{M}_{\odot }$ cannot form for the amount of time (100 - 400) Myr, because it takes billions of years to form them. So, they should not be there at all at the ‘beginning.’

• We hope that oldest candidate galaxies with high-redshifts up to z > 20.4 (light-travel distance > 13.7 Byr) will be confirmed. It depends on their spectroscopical confirmation.

We emphasize that now with JWST we are looking for the earliest and most distant galaxies, and at the same time, we live in one of the earliest galaxies—Milky Way!

Contrary to C. Ilie, J. Paulin, and K. Freese who consider JADES-GS-z13-0, JADES-GS-z12-0, and JADES-GS-z11-0 (at redshifts z $\in$ [11, 14]) as Supermassive Dark Stars made of hydrogen and helium but powered by Dark Matter heating [4], we see them as Galaxies with UCM Cores, which are UCM Reactors providing heating of them. In WUM, there are no Black Holes, which were discussed by R. Maiolino, et al. [9].

In our view, the unique observations of galaxy JADES-GS-z14-0:

• Lack of dust inside [5].

• Star formation in the early universe may have been more efficient or occurred in intense bursts [6] [7].

• Significantly more massive and luminous than anticipated [8].

• Rapid mass assembly and metal enrichment during the earliest phases of galaxy formation [10].

• Properties of galaxy populations (2375 redshifts in the range from z = 0.5 up to z = 13, including 404 at z > 5) in the first billion years after BB [11].

• Spectroscopic redshifts for 178 of the objects targeted extending up to z = 13.2 [12].

• Extremely massive galaxy candidates have been identified at z > 7, in much larger numbers than expected. Population of ultra-massive galaxies accounts for 20% of the total cosmic star formation rate density [13].

can be explained by MOs formation process proposed by WUM (see Section 3.2).

The observations of Enceladus plume’s composition and structure (the fluorescence emissions of H₂O at cryogenic temperatures 25 K and the stable observed outgassing rate 300 kg/s in 15 years [16]) can be explained by continuously working of UCM Reactor inside of Enceladus.

5. Classical Physics: Primary Notions

Principle of Relativity is the requirement that the equations describing the laws of physics have the same form in all admissible frames of reference (including inertial forces). For example, in the framework of Special Relativity the Maxwell equations have the same form in all inertial frames of reference. In the framework of General Relativity, Einstein’s field equations have the same form in arbitrary frames of reference.

In WUM, this Principle is valid because the Medium of the World is an absolute frame of reference. Then, there is no need to discuss Special Relativity and General Relativity, which abandoned the Aether in 1905. We can use the well-known equations considering time-varying physical parameters.

Universality of Physical Laws is the notion that the spatial distribution of matter in the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when viewed on a large enough scale, since the forces are expected to act uniformly throughout the universe, and should, therefore, produce no observable irregularities in the large-scale structuring over the course of evolution of the matter field that was initially laid down by BBM.

In WUM, this Principal is valid at the cosmological times $\tau \ge {\tau }_M\cong {10}^{-18}\text{s}$ , because Physical Laws are determined by the Medium of the World, which is Homogeneous and Isotropic and consist of elementary particles with two-thirds of the total Matter. The distribution of MOs with one-third of the total Matter is spatially Inhomogeneous and Anisotropic and temporally Non-simultaneous, and therefore, this Principal is not viable for the entire World.

Conservation Law states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves over time. Exact Conservation Laws include conservation of mass and energy, conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum, and conservation of electric charge.

One particularly important result concerning conservation laws is Noether theorem, which states that there is a one-to-one correspondence between each one of them and a differentiable symmetry of nature:

• Conservation of energy follows from the time-invariance of physical systems.

• Conservation of linear momentum follows from the space-translation invariance (translation along x, y, z directions).

• Conservation of angular momentum follows from the rotation invariance (rotation about x, y, z axes).

Angular Momentum is a problem of all existent cosmological models including BBM. Old-timers of Cosmology should solve this problem.

In WUM, Conservation Laws are not Exact Conservation Laws because the World is not an isolated physical system and is continuously getting UCM from the Universe.

The proposed new Primary Notions represent a transformative change in Classical Physics.

6. Main Results of WUM

6.1. Predictions

Summary of the calculated by WUM in 2013 cosmological parameters and experimentally measured parameters are presented in Table 5. We emphasize that WUM allows for precise calculation of values that were only measured experimentally earlier and makes verifiable predictions.

Table 5. Calculated and measured cosmological parameters.

Parameter	Calculated (2013)	Measured	Year
Gravitational	6.67420 × 10−11 m3∙kg−1∙s−2	6.674184 × 10−11 m3∙kg−1∙s−2	2018
Hubble’s	68.733 km∙s−1∙Mpc−1	68.7 ± 1.3 km∙s−1∙Mpc−1	2021
Ionized Baryons	4.8%	4.9 ± 1.3%	2016
Minimum Photon Energy	1.87433 × 10−14 eV	$\lesssim$ 2.2 × 10−14 eV	2017
MBR Temperature	2.725245 K	2.72548 ± 0.00057 K	2009
FIRB Temperature Peak	28.955 K	29 K	1998
Absolute Age of World	14.226 Byr

“The Discovery of a Supermassive Compact Object at the Centre of Our Galaxy” (Nobel Prize in Physics 2020) made by R. Genzel and A. Ghez is a confirmation of one of the most important predictions of WUM in 2013: “Macroobjects of the World have cores made up of the discussed DM (UCM) particles. Other particles, including DM (UCM) and baryonic matter, form shells surrounding the cores.”

JWST discoveries confirm the most important predictions of WUM in 2018:

• Absolute Age of World is 14.22 Byr.

• Dark (invisible) Epoch (spanning for Laniakea Supercluster (LSC) from the Beginning of the World for 0.45 Byr) when only UCM MOs form and evolve.

• Luminous Epoch (ever since, 13.77 Byr for LSC) when Luminous MOs (superclusters, galaxies, ESS, etc.) emerge.

• Transition from Dark Epoch to Luminous Epoch is due to Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of Overspinning (surface speed at equator exceeding escape velocity) UCM Supercluster’s Cores and self-annihilation of UCPs.

• MOs of the World form from top (Superclusters) down to Galaxies and ESS in parallel around different Cores made up of different UCPs.

• Three-dimensional Finite Boundless World presents a Patchwork Quilt of different Luminous Superclusters, which emerged in various places of the World at different Cosmological times.

6.2. Explained Problems [20]

WUM solves a number of problems in contemporary Cosmology through UCPs and their interactions:

• Angular Momentum problem in birth and subsequent evolution of Galaxies and ESS explained by Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of Overspinning UCM Supercluster’s Cores.

• Hubble Tension explained by observations of Galaxies, which belong to different Superclusters. The value of Hubble’s parameter should be measured based on Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation data only.

• Missing Baryon problem, related to the fact that the observed amount of baryonic matter did not match theoretical predictions, solved by the calculation of the concentration of Intergalactic plasma.

• Fermi Bubbles—two large structures in gamma-rays above and below Galactic center—are stable clouds of UCPs (UCF1, UCF2, and UCF3) containing uniformly distributed UCM Objects, in which UCPs self-annihilate and radiate gamma rays.

• Galaxies are ellipticals and spirals due to Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of their Overspinning UCM Cores.

• Coronal Heating Problem relates to a question of why the temperature of the Solar corona is millions of degrees higher than that of the photosphere. According to WUM, the origin of the Solar corona plasma is not coronal heating. Plasma particles (electrons, protons, multi-charged ions) are so far apart that plasma temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. Plasma is the result of the self-annihilation of UCPs. The Solar corona made up of UCPs resembles a honeycomb filled with plasma.

• Cores of Sun and Earth rotate faster than their surfaces despite high viscosity of the internal medium. WUM explains the phenomenon through absorption of UCPs by UCM Cores. UCPs supply not only additional mass ($\propto {\tau }^{3/2}$ ), but also additional angular momentum ($\propto {\tau }^2$ ). Cores irradiate products of self-annihilation, which carry away excessive angular momentum. Solar wind is the result of this mechanism.

• Internal Heating of Gravitationally-Rounded Objects in SS is explained by UCM Reactors inside of all MOs fueled by UCPs. Internal Heating is due to UCPs self-annihilation.

• Diversity of Gravitationally-Rounded Objects in SS is explained by UCM Reactors inside of MOs fueled by UCPs. All chemical elements, compositions, radiation are produced by MOs themselves as the result of UCPs self-annihilation in their different UCM cores.

• Plutonium-244 with half-life of eighty million years exists in Nature. It is not produced by the nuclear fuel cycle, because it needs extremely high neutron flux environments. Any Pu-244 present in the Earth’s crust should have decayed by now. In WUM, all chemical products of the Earth including isotopes K-40, U-238, Th-232, and Pu-244, are produced within the Earth as the result of UCF1 self-annihilation. They arrive in the Crust of the Earth due to convection currents in the mantle carrying heat and isotopes from the interior to the planet’s surface.

• Expanding Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing. In WUM, the Earth’s UCM core absorbs new UCPs, and its size is increasing in time $\propto {\tau }^{1/2}$ . Hence, there is an expansion of UCM core, and its surface (the Upper mantle with Crust) is stretching. Due to UCPs self-annihilation, new chemical elements are created inside of the Upper mantle with Crust. As a result, the relative movement of continents is happening.

• Faint young Sun paradox describes the apparent contradiction between observations of liquid water early in Earth’s history and the astrophysical expectation that the Sun’s output would be only 70% as intense during that epoch as it is during the modern epoch. In WUM, all MOs of the World were fainter in the past. As their UCM cores absorb new UCPs, the sizes of MOs and thus their luminosity are increasing in time $\propto \tau$ . Considering the age of the World ≅ 14.2 Byr and the age of SS ≅ 4.6 Byr, it is easy to find that the young Sun’s output was 67.6% of what it is today.

• Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry problem. Ordinary Matter is a byproduct of UCPs self-annihilation. This problem does not arise since antimatter does not get created by UCPs self-annihilation.

• Black-body spectrum of Microwave Background Radiation is due to thermodynamic equilibrium of photons with Intergalactic plasma.

• Unidentified IR Discrete Emission Bands with peaks 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 8.6, 11.2, and 12.7 μm explained by a self-annihilation of UC particles UCF4 (0.2 eV).

• Solar Corona, Geocorona and Planetary Coronas made up of UCPs resemble honeycombs filled with plasma particles (electrons, protons, multi-charged ions), which are the result of UCPs self-annihilation.

• Lightning Initiation problem and Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes are explained by the self-annihilation of UCPs in Geocorona.

• Ball Lightnings are objects that have cores made up of UCPs surrounded by electron-positron plasma shells contaminated by chemical elements of soil and air as the result of Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flash strikes of the ground. WUM predicts a new phenomenon—a generation of BLs according to the proposed model of them. Once we master the creation of BLs in a controlled environment, we can concentrate our efforts on harvesting that energy from an infinite Source—the Medium of the World with UCPs.

• Wave-Particle Duality problem. In physics, the Observer Effect refers to the disturbance of a system caused by the act of observing it. A well-known example of this occurs in quantum mechanics, particularly in the double-slit experiment. Physicists have observed that when detectors are used to monitor quantum phenomena in this experiment, the very act of observation alters the outcome. When detectors are placed at the slits, they find that each photon passes through only one slit, behaving like a classical particle, rather than through both slits, which would indicate wave-like behavior. Crucially, when the path of the particle is observed, the characteristic interference pattern—typical of wave behavior—does not form, illustrating the principle of wave-particle duality [21]. Richard Feynman famously noted that the wave-particle duality in the double-slit experiment is “impossible, absolutely impossible, to explain in any classical way” and that this mystery lies at the heart of quantum mechanics [22]. However, according to WUM, the concept of wavelength is classical, not quantum. Wavelength, in this view, is a property of an ensemble of quantum objects (such as photons or electrons), all of which possess four-momenta but no individual wavelength. When the gravitostatic charge of particles is equal to their momentum $p_{DB}$ , the gravitomagnetic flux ${\varphi }_{DB}$ is defined as [23]:

${\varphi }_{DB}=\frac{h}{p_{DB}}={\lambda }_{DB}$

This is known as the de Broglie wavelength. Thus, in WUM, wavelength is considered a macroscopic phenomenon, representing the gravitomagnetic flux of particles characterized solely by their four-momenta. This implies there is no wave-particle duality in WUM, as wavelength is an emergent phenomenon. The act of observation (through detectors) disturbs the observed system (an ensemble of particles), causing the emergent wavelength to disappear. Consequently, the interference pattern no longer forms.

• The “Axis of Evil” refers to a controversial correlation between a plane of SS and certain anomalies in MBR. This correlation suggests that the plane of SS, and by extension Earth’s position, may have greater cosmological significance than expected by random chance. Specifically, the motion and orientation of the Solar System’s ecliptic plane appear to align with certain features observed in MBR. In WUM, the black-body spectrum of MBR is explained by the thermodynamic equilibrium between photons and the intergalactic plasma, the existence of which has been experimentally supported by observations of Fast Radio Bursts. The solar wind, which consists of charged particles (primarily protons and electrons) emitted from the Sun’s corona, has a plasma density distribution that varies with distance from the Sun:

1) Radial Distribution

• Close to the Sun (~0.1 AU): The particle density is high, ranging from 100 to 1000 particles/cm³.

• At Earth’s orbit (1 AU): The density averages between 5 to 10 particles/cm³.

• Beyond 1 AU: The density decreases with the inverse square of the distance, reaching as low as 0.001 - 0.005 particles/cm³ between 80 to 120 AU, before rapidly increasing near the heliopause to 0.05 - 0.2 particles/cm³.

2) Latitude Distribution

• Near the solar equator: The solar wind is denser and slower, known as the “slow solar wind,” with speeds of 300 - 500 km/s.

• At higher latitudes (near the Sun’s poles): The solar wind is faster and less dense, referred to as the “fast solar wind,” with speeds ranging from 700 - 800 km/s.

This distribution of solar wind plasma exhibits cylindrical symmetry relative to the plane of the ecliptic. The interaction of photons from MBR with this plasma may account for some of the anomalies associated with the “Axis of Evil.”

7. Why Is Infrared Radiation Important to Astronomy?

According to “An ESA Mission with Participation from NASA,” there are three basic reasons for this [24]:

1) It is cold out there. Most of the light in the Universe is in IR and longer wavelengths.

2) It is dusty out there. A number of things of great interest to astronomy are hidden within or behind vast clouds of gas and dust. Our view is blocked in visible light because the dust grains are about the same size as optical wavelengths, about one micron or less, and so are highly effective at scattering or absorbing that light. But longer IR wavelengths undulate around the dust. And the longer the wavelength, the thicker the layer of dust it can penetrate. So Far-IR and submillimeter radiation can move freely through the Universe, unobstructed by dust.

3) The Universe is expanding. Galaxies outside our own group are traveling away from us with the expansion of the universe, and the more distant they are, the faster they are receding. As they speed away, their light is “redshifted” to longer wavelengths. Light that starts out at optical wavelengths may be stretched into infrared.

Optical astronomy has been around since the first humans looked up and started to chart the motions of the heavens. We have boosted our powers of observation with instruments since 1609, when Galileo pointed a telescope at the moon. But it is only within the last half-century that we have begun to explore the Universe in IR. And the results have been astonishing.

The first IR survey of the sky, published in 1965, revealed ten objects that optical telescopes could not see. By 1969, thousands of new objects had been discovered in IR.

More recently, IR astronomy made the surprising discovery that Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune have internal sources of heat. In WUM, it means that they have UCM Reactors inside of them.

IR astronomy found a hundred thousand red giant stars in the central bulge of MW, and ices of water, methane, carbon dioxide, formaldehyde, and carbon monoxide in interstellar space.

IR observations of galaxies 10 Bly away found star-formation at a rate three to four times greater than optical surveys had indicated, dramatically changing our understanding of the early Universe.

IR part of the spectrum spans from about 0.75 μm to a few hundred micrometers:

• JWST’s four instruments provide wavelength coverage from 0.6 to 28.5 μm (Mid-Infrared). $z_{max}=46.5$ .

• Herschel Space Observatory covered wavelengths from 55 to 672 μm (Far-IR—

Submillimeter). This is also the best part of the electromagnetic spectrum for observing key chemicals in space. About 130 kinds of chemicals have been detected so far in the interstellar medium, and most have rotational spectra—the photon emissions induced by the rotation of the molecules—with wavelengths that peak in the submillimeter range. These include the many forms of water, and the organic molecules thought to be necessary for life.

The Primeval Structure Telescope (PaST), also called 21-cm Array, is a Chinese radio telescope array designed to detect the earliest luminous objects in the universe. This wavelength falls within the microwave radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum, and it is observed frequently in radio astronomy, since those radio waves can penetrate the large clouds of interstellar cosmic dust that are opaque to visible light.

According to WUM, Dark (invisible) Epoch spans from the Beginning of the World 14.22 Byr ago to 0.45 Byr (for Laniakea Supercluster that is a home to MW) when only UCM MOs existed. They have UCM Nuclei made up of UCF1 and UCF2 (1.3 TeV, 9.6 GeV) surrounded by shells of UCF3 and UCF4 (3.7 keV, 0.2 eV).

According to WUM:

• Unidentified IR emission bands around peaks at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 8.6, 11.2, 12.7 μm, which are the fingerprints of all galaxies, explained by a self-annihilation of UCF4 (0.2 eV).

• 21-cm Emission with the broad line-width (~200 km·s⁻¹) explained by the self-annihilation of an ensemble of ultra-relativistic UCPs XIONs (5.3 μeV).

It means that Far-IR and Radio observatories can observe UCM Macroobjects existing in Dark (invisible) Epoch before Luminous Epoch! These observations would provide further confirmation of WUM and deepen our understanding of the World’s fundamental structure.

WUM predicts the existence of UCPs with rest energies of 1.3 TeV, 9.6 GeV, 70 MeV, 340 keV, 3.7 keV, 0.2 eV, and 5.3 μeV. Future efforts should focus on observing cosmic gamma-rays with spectral lines corresponding to these predicted UCPs rest energies.

8. Conclusion

Hypersphere World-Universe Model is consistent with all Concepts of the World. The Model successfully describes primary cosmological parameters and their relationships. WUM allows for precise calculation of values that were only measured experimentally earlier and makes verifiable predictions. The remarkable agreement of calculated values with the observational data gives us considerable confidence in the Model. Great experimental results and observations achieved by Astronomy in last decades should be analyzed through the prism of WUM. Considering JWST’s discoveries, WUM’s achievements, and 87 years of Dirac’s proposals, it is time to initiate a fundamental transformation in Astronomy, Cosmology, and Classical Physics.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply grateful to Academician A. Prokhorov and Prof. A. Manenkov for their decisive influence on my scientific journey. My eternal gratitude goes to my Scientific Father, P. Dirac, whose genius foresaw the future of Physics in a new Cosmology. I am also profoundly thankful to N. Tesla, another extraordinary genius. I extend my sincere thanks to Prof. C. Corda for publishing my manuscripts in the Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology. I appreciate R. Kuhn, N. Percival, and H. Ricker for their valuable comments and suggestions, which have significantly improved my publications. I am grateful to the anonymous referee for the important critical remarks. Special thanks to my son, I. Netchitailo, for helping me clarify the Model and enhance its understanding.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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