Gastrointestinal Ulcers Treatment: Plants and Recipes Used by Herbalists of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou Districts, Southern Benin ()
1. Introduction
Gastrointestinal ulcers are one of the major gastrointestinal pathologies affecting more than 10% of the world’s population each year [1]-[3]. It is a pathology frequently engendered by chronic consumption of alcoholic beverages, smoking, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, stress and H. pylori infection [4]. It may also be due to Salmonella enterica infection. Indeed, complications of typhoid or paratyphoid fever have led to cases of ulcer [5] [6]. While colonic ulcer due to Salmonella enteritidis infection is less common in children, a recent case was reported in a 32-month-old child [7]. In detail, infection with Salmonella enterica (Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella paratyphi, and Salmonella enteritidis) causes gastric oxidative stress and disruption of gastrointestinal mucosal barriers, resulting in bleeding ulcerations [8]. Anticholinergics and antibiotic agents against ulcerogenic bacteria are the main classes of drugs used to treat this disease [9].
However, the incidence of relapses and adverse effects generally associated with synthetic therapies cripple peptic ulcer control programs. By way of result, resistance to antibiotic therapy involved in the control of this pathology is a growing and persistent phenomenon as the deaths associated with bacterial AMR was estimated to be 4.95 million in 2019, including 1.27 million deaths attributable to bacterial AMR and the all-age death rate attributable to resistance was estimated to be highest in western sub-Saharan Africa, at 27.3 deaths per 100,000 [10]. H. pylori is one of the multidrug-resistant bacteria reported and resistance to clarithromycin, levofloxacin, and metronidazole has risen alarmingly [11] [12]. The WHO has classified Helicobacter pylori and Salmonella as priority pathogens for research and development of new antibiotics [13] [14]. In addition, studies have reported a high prevalence of Salmonella enterica multidrug resistance to antibiotics and resistance determinants that indicate an increased public health risk associated with Salmonella enterica infection [15] [16]. It is therefore urgent to find new molecules capable of replacing the anti-inflammatories, antioxidants, wound-healers and antimicrobials currently in use and failing, in particular those used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers. The therapeutic or dietary use of plant resources by anthropological groups has long provided a basis for the discovery of new active principles [17]. Herbal medicines continue to play an essential role in healthcare and their use by different cultures has been widely documented [18] [19]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated in 1985 that around 65% of the world’s population relied primarily on traditional plant-derived medicines for their primary health care [20]. Even thought, plants-based metabolites could play a crucial role in the treatment of H. pylori infections [21].
The medicinal richness of African flora has been documented by several scientific studies. An ethnobotanical study conducted by Tesfaye et al. in Ethiopia identified 53 plant species belonging to 30 families traditionally used in cancer treatment, the most frequently mentioned being Acmella caulirhiza Del (Asteraceae), Clematis simensis Fresen (Ranunculaceae), Croton macrostachyus Del (Euphorbiaceae) and Dorstenia barnimiana Schweinf (Moraceae) [22]. The ethnopharmacology of cancer in Togo includes 70 plants from 39 families, the most frequently mentioned being Rubiaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Fabaceae and Annonaceae, with the ten most frequently cited species being Xylopia aethiopica, Aframomum melegueta, Khaya senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Piliostigma thonningii, Blighia sapida, Vitellaria paradoxa, Adansonia digitata, Annona muricata and Parinari curatellifolia [23]. 14 plants commonly used and often endangered used by communities and traditional medical practitioners for treating sexually transmitted diseases from 5-selected districts of Zimbabwe were investigated for toxicity by Brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT), by 50% Cytopathic effect on VERO cultured cells, for antiviral activity and were found to be toxic and to have efficient antiviral activity [24].
Benin, like other countries, boasts a wealth of ethno-medical resources. In particular, Akoegninou et al. listed nearly 30,700 specimens with therapeutic properties in Benin’s flora [25]. In the ethnobotanical study carried by Adomou et al., a total of 205 plant species used in the formulation of 41 recipes to treat 37 illnesses and symptoms, grouped into 181 genera and 74 families were identified [26], the most represented families in terms of specific richness were Leguminosae, Rubiaceae and Euphorbiaceae. A recent study reported by Dougnon et al. identified 57 species sold by Beninese herbalists for the treatment of typhoid fever, including Senna siamea, Phyllantus amarus, Uvaria chamae, Vachellia sieberiana, Heterotis rotundifolia, Crateva adansonii, Citrus aurantiifolia, Acanthospermum hispidum, Corchorus olitorius [27]. There’s no doubt that Benin’s flora overflows in plants probably with anti-ulcer properties. To help meet the challenges posed by the ineffectiveness of the anti-ulcer molecules currently in use and the antimicrobial resistance of ulcer-causing bacteria, this study set out to explore the Beninese pharmacopoeia to identify and characterize plants and recipes used by the herbalists of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou to treat gastrointestinal ulcers.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
This study was carried out in the communes of Abomey-Calavi (Figure 1) and Cotonou (Figure 2) from April to May 2022, both in southern Benin. This region is characterized by strong ethnic and culture diversity. Indeed, each people has its own relationship with its animal and plant environment, which it exploits to satisfy its basic needs, particularly health [28].
Southern Benin lies between 6˚25'N and 7˚30'N and covers an area of 17.109 km2. Its climate is sub-equatorial and characterized by a bimodal rainfall regime with two rainy seasons alternating with two dry seasons. The average annual temperature is 28˚C and air humidity varies between 69% and 97%. Ferralitic soils on clayey sediments, hydromorphic soils in valleys, lowlands and alluvial plains, Vertisols in the Lama depression and tropical eutrophic brown soils are found. Its vegetation comprises a mosaic of dense rainforest islands, savannahs, grasslands, mangroves and fallows. The total flora of southern Benin comprises 1170 plant species [26]. The dominant ethnic groups are Fon and related cultures (39.2%), Adja and related cultures (15.2%) and Yoruba and related cultures (14.5%) [29] [30].
2.2. Data Collection
To carry out the ethno-pharmacological survey, we explained the purpose of our study to herbalists and sought their consent to the capitalization of their
Figure 1. Abomey-Calavi municipality map.
Figure 2. Cotonou municipality map.
knowledge in a published document in order to avoid the erosion of knowledge about medicinal plants used for ulcer treatment as used by Yetein et al. [31]. The informants were identified by snow ball sampling method and those who freely agreed to participate in our study were selected and interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 85 herbalists were surveyed. This survey enabled us to collect data from herbalists on the phytopharmaceutical resources used for ulcer treatment.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
Survey data were compiled in Excel spreadsheets and then visualized. Data pre-processing consisted to match and confirm vernacular and common names provided by herbalists to corresponding scientific names. The names of cited plants were matched with local, vernacular, vulgar and scientific names from research reported by Akoegninou et al. and also recent research published [25]-[27]. The data were then processed using the Microsoft Excel package’s using pivot table function to calculate the absolute and relative citations frequencies of the different species mentioned by the herbalists.
The Sympson index used by Guillaume was specifically adopted and used to measure the homogeneous or non-homogeneous nature of the distribution of anti-ulcer plant knowledge, and is calculated by the formula (1) [32].
(1)
where, Pi = proportion of citations for species i (2), S = total or cardinal number of species cited.
(2)
where, ni = number of citations of species I, N = total number of citations. The closer this index is to 1, the more evenly distributed the knowledge is.
The Diversity index (3) and the Equitability index (4), were calculated to measure respectively the diversity of plant species cited and the dominance of plants cited.
(3)
where, λ = Index of Sympson, D = 1: Case where an infinite number of species are cited. Probability approximately equal to zero: Case where very few species are cited.
(4)
where, D = Diversity of citation, Dmax = maximal Diversity. Simpson’s equitability index is used to express the dominance of one species (ED tends towards 0) or the codominance of several species (ED tends to-wards 1).
In addition. the data were subjected to multivariate statistical analysis. including multiple regression and factorial correspondence analysis.
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Herbalists Prospected
Figure 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the survey population. This includes information on ethnicity, religion, education level and seniority.
The populations surveyed are made up of 50%, 14.28%, 10.71%, 7.14%, 3.57%, 3.57%, 3.57%, 3.57%, 3.57% respectively Fon, Aizo, Mina, Goun, Dendi, Hloua, Houagonou, Ifè and Mahi (Figure 3(a)). Even if other ethnic groups are represented, it is clear that the herbalists surveyed in this study are dominated by fons speakers. We recorded the representation of Christianity, Vodoun and Islam (Figure 3(b)). In fact, 71.42% of the herbalists surveyed were Christians, 25% were followers of Vodoun and 3.57% were Muslims. It should be noted that the majority of herbalists surveyed were Christians. The herbalists surveyed are categorized into three levels of education: primary, secondary and higher (Figure 3(c)). The primary education was the most represented with 82.75%, followed by the secondary level with 13.79% and the higher level with 3.44%.
Herbalists’ seniority was represented in four ranges: [1;10[, [10;20[, [20;30[ and [30;40] (Figure 3(d)). The [20;30[ seniority was the most representative with 32.14%. It is followed by the [1;10[ and [10;20[ each with a percentage of 25%. In addition, 17.85% of herbalists have exerted the profession since 30 to 40 years.
Figure 3. Characteristics of informants.
3.2. Distribution of Knowledge on Plant Used for Treatment of Gastrointestinal Ulcer
The parameters of repartition on plant used for treatment of gastrointestinal ulcer are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2. The interviewee diversity index calculated shows that Dendi (0.0697), Ifè (0.0697) and Mina (0.0593) ethnic groups are susceptible to knowing more antiulcer plants than the other ethnic groups. In addition. The Equitability Index was evaluated for the populations surveyed, where the averages by ethnic group are summarized in. A comparison of the equitability index between ethnic groups shows that the Dendi (0.8991), Ifè (0.8991) and Mina (0.7657) groups have equal knowledge of anti-ulcer plants. The same statement applies to the Aizonnou, Fon, Goun and Mahi ethnics groups.
We also note that respondents practicing Islam are more likely to know many anti-ulcer plants than those practicing Vodou and Christianity. We also note from the comparison of the average equitability index of religious groups that respondents practicing Vodou and those practicing Christianity tend to have the same level of knowledge of anti-ulcer plants. All these explanations are confirmed by correspondence analysis summarized in Figure 4, where ethnic and religious groups are defined by their level of knowledge of anti-ulcer plants. However, the multiple regression analysis performed has demonstrated that none of ethnicity, education and religion whether or not combined did not predict the distribution of knowledge on plants used to treat gastro-intestinal ulcer (Table 3).
Table 1. Distribution of ethnic groups represented according to average diversity and equitability indices.
| Ethnic Group |
Average Diversity index (ID = Ex/Et) |
Equitability index (IE = ID/IDmax) |
| Aizonnou |
0.0271 |
0.3498 |
| Dendi |
0.0697 |
0.8991 |
| Fon |
0.0320 |
0.4128 |
| Goun |
0.0232 |
0.2992 |
| Hloua |
0.0077 |
0.0993 |
| Houagonou |
0.0155 |
0.1999 |
| Ifè |
0.0697 |
0.8991 |
| Mahi |
0.0232 |
0.2992 |
| Mina |
0.0593 |
0.7657 |
Table 2. Average diversity and equitability indexes defined by religious groups.
| Religious group |
Average Diversity index (ID = Ex/Et) |
Equitability index (IE = ID/IDmax) |
| Christianism |
0.0356 |
0.4594 |
| Vodoun |
0.0271 |
0.3495 |
| Islam |
0.0697 |
0.8991 |
Figure 4. Projection of ethnic and religious groups defined by knowledge of anti-ulcer plants.
Table 3. Multiple regression of the distribution of antiulcer plant knowledge according to ethnicity, level of education and/or religion.
| Model |
Multiple
R-squared |
Adjusted
R-squared |
F-statistic |
p-value |
| Ethnicity + Education + Religion |
0.03925 |
−0.07604 |
0.3404 |
0.7963 |
| Ethnicity + Education |
0.0354 |
−0.0388 |
0.4771 |
0.6259 |
| Ethnicity |
0.003141 |
−0.03378 |
0.08508 |
0.7728 |
| Education |
0.03456 |
−0.001193 |
0.9666 |
0.3343 |
| Religion |
0.001089 |
−0.03591 |
0.02944 |
0.8651 |
| Education + Religion |
0.03902 |
−0.0349 |
0.5279 |
0.596 |
| Ethnicity + Religion |
0.005628 |
−0.07086 |
0.07357 |
0.9293 |
3.3. Plants Used by Herbalists in the Municipalities of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou to Treat Gastrointestinal Ulcers
Table 5 shows the plant species of the Benin pharmacopoeia used by herbalists in the municipalities of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou for the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers. A total of 71 species were inventoried, among which the 12 most frequently cited, in decreasing order of frequency, were Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa, Ocimum gratissimum, Khaya senegalensis, Citrus limon, ACACIA nilotica ou adansonii, Ocimum canum, Phyllanthus amarus, Senna siamea, Piper guineense, Momordica charantia, Pteleopsis suberosa, Spondias mombin, Sida acuta, Jatropha multifida, Heliotropium indicum, Eugenia aromatica and Crateva adansonii. With a fair citation frequency (3.57%) and a fair probability of occurrence (0.01), 26 of the species cited for the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers are less represented. These include: Anchomanes difformis, Anacardium occidentale, Catharanthus roseus, Combretum micranthum, Rhaphiostylis beninensis, Xylopia aethiopica, Sansevieria liberica, Hyptis suaveolens, Pseudocedrela kotschyi, Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel, Cassytha filiformis, Alium cepa, Newbouidia leavis, Rourea coccinea, Alchornea cordifolia, Combretum racemosum, Eucalyptus globulus (Eucalyptus radiata), Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloïdes (Lam. ), Rytigynia umbellulate, Carissa spinarum, Cajanus cajan, Passiflora foetida, Ceratotheca sesamoides, Bridelia ferruginea Benth, Terminalia glaucescens and Carica papaya.
All the cited species are grouped into 44 taxonomic families, as shown in Table 6. In ascending order of frequency, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Sapotaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae, Annonaceae, Meliaceae, Malvaceae, Combretaceae and Boraginaceae were the ten firstly most represented families.
The various species cited for the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers are heterogeneously distributed as confirmed by the Simpson Index evaluated (ʎ = 0.163), which is inferior to 1 (Table 4). Furthermore, the calculated Diversity Index is D = 0.837, a value very close to 1, indicating a large number of species with very low probabilities (Table 4). In addition, the Simpson Equitability Index (ED) was evaluated to determine the degree of equality of the species listed. Its value ED = 0.849, very close to 1, indicates the codominance of several listed species (Table 4). This codominance is noted with Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and Ocimum gratissimum and Khaya senegalensis, Citrus limon, Acacia nilotica or adansonii, Ocimum canum, Phyllanthus amarus and Senna siamea. The equality of frequency and probability noted for some of the species mentioned also accounts for this codominance (Table 5).
Table 4. Indices of anti-ulcer plant distribution.
| Species diversity index |
Valeurs |
| Simpson index (ʎ) |
0.163 |
| Diversity Index (D) |
0.837 |
| Maximum diversity (Dmax) |
0.985 |
| Equitability Index (EI) |
0.849 |
3.4. Characterization of Recipes Listed by Herbalists for the Treatment of Gastrointestinal Ulcer
The various recipes given by herbalists for the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers are listed in Table 7. A total of 70 anti-ulcer recipes made from medicinal plants (leaves, stems, seeds, fruits, barks, whole plants, flowers and/or roots) and/or non-wood resources such as peak milk, white calaba and honey (recipes 7, 13, 14, 23 and 28) were given by the herbalists surveyed. On average, they consisted of 3 ± 2 phytopharmaceutical resources. Three of the recipes are made up of the largest number of phytopharmaceutical resources, i.e. recipes N˚8, 11 and 21. The 8th recipe is made up of 9 resources, including Acacia nilotica or adansonii, Momordica charantia L., Phyllanthus amarus, Ocimum gratissimum L., Lantana camara, Hyptis suaveolens, Piper guineense, Allium sativum and Piper guineense; the 11th recipe is made up of 10 resources including Tetrapleura tetraptera, Xylopia aethiopica, Acacia nilotica or adansonii, Spondias mombin, Alchornea cordifolia, Piper guineense, Eugenia aromatica, Khaya senegalensis, Pteleopsis suberosa, and Saba senegalensis, then the 21st recipe is made up of 11 resources including Eugenia aromatica, Xylopia aethiopica, Monodora myristica, Tetrapleura tetraptera, Momordica charantia, Clausena anisata, Caesalpinia pucherrima, Ocimum gratissimum L., Khaya senegalensis, Jatropha multifida, and Piper guineense. Although the majority of recipes are used by decoction, some of them are used by maceration, infusion, crushing or pulverization. Most of the recipes given have no contraindications. However, some of them prohibit the consumption of certain foods during treatment. These are recipes 13 (Consumption of raw meat, gari and galette), 24 (Consumption of spicy, hot meals and gari), 38 (Consumption of spicy and fermented meals), 51 (Consumption of milk and gari) and 57 (Consumption of cold meals, sweet drinks and fruit).
Table 5. Plants used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers.
| N° |
Scientific names |
Family |
Local names |
Citation
Frequence |
Proportional
abundance (Pi) |
(Pi)² |
| 1 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Sapotaceae |
Limi |
46.42 |
0.18 |
0.0324 |
| 2 |
Parkia biglobosa |
Fabaceae |
Aha |
39.28 |
0.15 |
0.0225 |
| 3 |
Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Lamiaceae |
Tchiayo |
35.71 |
0.14 |
0.0196 |
| 4 |
Khaya senegalensis |
Meliaceae |
Zounza; Kaïlcédra |
25 |
0.1 |
0.01 |
| 5 |
Citrus limon |
Rutaceae |
cle |
25 |
0.1 |
0.01 |
| 6 |
ACACIA nilotica ou adansonii |
Fabaceae |
Nep nep/Bani |
21.42 |
0.08 |
0.0064 |
| 7 |
Ocimum canum |
Lamiaceae |
Késsoukéssou |
21.42 |
0.08 |
0.0064 |
| 8 |
Phyllanthus amarus |
Euphorbiaceae |
Hlenwé |
21.42 |
0.08 |
0.0064 |
| 9 |
Senna siamea |
Fabaceae |
Acasia |
17.85 |
0.07 |
0.0049 |
| 10 |
Piper guineense |
Piperaceae |
Linlinku |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 11 |
Momordica charantia L. |
Cucurbitaceae |
Nyèsiken; Nyinya |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 12 |
Pteleopsis suberosa |
Combretaceae |
kuilikuili |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 13 |
Spondias mombin |
Anacardiaceae |
Agnougloétin ; Sam |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 14 |
Sida acuta |
Malvaceae |
Azatalouga (Adonma) |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 15 |
Jatropha multifida |
Euphorbiaceae |
tanti doto |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 16 |
Heliotropium indicum |
Boraginaceae |
Kokloden |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 17 |
Eugenia aromatica |
Myrtaceae |
Atikingbadota |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 18 |
Crateva adansonii |
Capparaceae |
Wontonzouinzouin |
14.28 |
0.05 |
0.0025 |
| 19 |
Monodora myristica |
Annonaceae |
Sasaliku |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 20 |
Xylopia aethiopica |
Annonaceae |
Kpédjréku |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 21 |
Cola millenii |
Malvaceae |
Aloviaton |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 22 |
Kigelia africana |
Bignoniaceae |
Gnanblikpo |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 23 |
Capsicum frutescens |
Solanaceae |
Danmè takin |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 24 |
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.
(Cyanthilium cinereum (L) |
Asteraceae |
Houinssikoussè;
Hussikonou |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 25 |
Dichapetalum madagascariense (DC.) |
Dichapetalaceae |
Gbaglo |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 26 |
Cocos nucifera |
Arecaceae |
Agonkètin |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 27 |
Chenopodium ambrosioides |
Chenopodiaceae |
Amantrouzu/Gogo |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 28 |
Tetrapleura tetraptera |
Fabaceae |
Linja |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 29 |
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad ex. Wendel |
Poaceae |
Dawé |
10.71 |
0.04 |
0.0016 |
| 30 |
Persea americana |
Lauraceae |
Avoca ma |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 31 |
Cymbopogon citratus |
Poaceae |
Tea ma |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 32 |
Ehretia cymosa Thonn |
Boraginaceae |
Mignonman |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 33 |
Clausena anisata |
Rutaceae |
Gbossoazohion |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 34 |
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. |
Asteraceae |
Ahouanglon |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 35 |
Annona muricata |
Annonaceae |
Chap-chap |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 36 |
Corchorus olitorius L |
Malvaceae |
Ninouwi |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 37 |
Pupalia lappacea ou Achyranthes lappacea L. ou Pupal lappacea (L.) |
Amaranthaceae |
Trèdoavohou; Trèdagboko; Tètèmatè |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 38 |
Lippia multiflora |
Verbenaceae |
Agalala |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 39 |
Caesalpinia pucherrima |
Fabaceae |
Orgueil de chine |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 40 |
Allium sativum |
Amaryllidaceae |
Ayo |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 41 |
Lantana camara |
Verbenaceae |
Hlachiayo |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 42 |
Erythrina senegalensis |
Kpakléssi |
Kpakéssi |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 43 |
Maranthes polyandra (Benth.) |
Chrysobalanaceae |
Magbèvidé |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 44 |
Cissus quadrangularis |
Vitaceae |
Asan. Kankpe.
Alinkpe. Avounga |
7.14 |
0.02 |
0.0004 |
| 45 |
Anchomanes difformis |
Araceae |
Godoe |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 46 |
Anacardium occidentale |
Anacardiaceae |
Cajou |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 47 |
Catharanthus roseus |
Apocynaceae |
Bonjourbonsoir |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 48 |
Combretum micranthum |
Combretaceae |
Kinkéliba |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 49 |
Rhaphiostylis beninensis |
Metteniusaceae |
Kplakplakan |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 50 |
Xylopia aethiopica |
Annonaceae |
Wakonto |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 51 |
Sansevieria liberica |
Agavaceae |
Kpognando |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 52 |
Hyptis suaveolens |
Lamiaceae |
Zansoukpema; Afio |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 53 |
Pseudocedrela kotschyi |
Meliaceae |
Atidohoukpédo |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 54 |
Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel |
Apocynaceae |
Lèwédo |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 55 |
Cassytha filiformis |
Lauraceae |
Agbégbékan |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 56 |
Alium cepa |
Amaryllidaceae |
Ayoma vovo |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 57 |
Newbouidia leavis |
Bignoniaceae |
Désré |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 58 |
Rourea coccinea |
Connaraceae |
Vikplomba |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 59 |
Alchornea cordifolia |
Euphorbiaceae |
Djéka (Dioulas); Klan Madou (g) |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 60 |
Combretum racemosum |
Combretaceae |
Wèdo |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 61 |
Eucalyptus globulus; Eucalyptus radiata |
Myrtaceae |
Eucalyptus |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 62 |
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloïdes (Lam.) |
Rutaceae |
Hêdo |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 63 |
Rytigynia umbellulata |
Rubiaceae |
Gbadéman |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 64 |
Carissa spinarum |
Apocynaceae |
Ahanzodo |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 65 |
Cajanus cajan |
Fabaceae |
Klouékou ma |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 66 |
Passiflora foetida |
Passifloraceae |
Avoun didouè |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 67 |
Ceratotheca sesamoides Endl |
Pedaliaceae |
Agbo |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 68 |
Bridelia ferruginea Benth. |
Phyllanthaceae |
Housoukokwé |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 69 |
Terminalia glaucescens |
Combretaceae |
Anagoitin do |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 70 |
Carica papaya |
Caricaceae |
kpin assou |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
| 71 |
Gardenia erubescens Stapf & Huteh |
Rubiaceae |
Adakplaman/Hêmandjè |
3.57 |
0.01 |
0.0001 |
Table 6. Distribution of different species families.
| N° |
Family |
Frequences |
| 1 |
Fabaceae |
52.27 |
| 2 |
Lamiaceae |
38.63 |
| 3 |
Sapotaceae |
29.54 |
| 4 |
Euphorbiaceae |
22.72 |
| 5 |
Rutaceae |
20.45 |
| 6 |
Annonaceae |
20.45 |
| 7 |
Meliaceae |
18.18 |
| 8 |
Malvaceae |
15.9 |
| 9 |
Combretaceae |
15.9 |
| 10 |
Boraginaceae |
13.63 |
| 11 |
Poaceae |
11.36 |
| 12 |
Myrtaceae |
11.36 |
| 13 |
Asteraceae |
11.36 |
| 14 |
Anacardiaceae |
11.36 |
| 15 |
Fabaceae |
11.36 |
| 16 |
Vitaceae |
9.09 |
| 17 |
Bignoniaceae |
9.09 |
| 18 |
Piperaceae |
9.09 |
| 19 |
Capparaceae |
9.09 |
| 20 |
Verbenaceae |
9.09 |
| 21 |
Cucurbitaceae |
9.09 |
| 22 |
Apocynaceae |
6.81 |
| 23 |
Dichapetalaceae |
6.81 |
| 24 |
Solanaceae |
6.81 |
| 25 |
Arecaceae |
6.81 |
| 26 |
Chenopodiaceae |
6.81 |
| 27 |
Lauraceae |
6.81 |
| 28 |
Chrysobalanaceae |
4.54 |
| 29 |
Malvaceae |
4.54 |
| 30 |
Amaryllidaceae |
4.54 |
| 31 |
Amaranthaceae |
4.54 |
| 32 |
Kpakléssi |
4.54 |
| 33 |
Metteniusaceae |
2.27 |
| 34 |
Euphorbiaceae |
2.27 |
| 35 |
Araceae |
2.27 |
| 36 |
Amaryllidaceae |
2.27 |
| 37 |
Rubiaceae |
2.27 |
| 38 |
Agavaceae |
2.27 |
| 39 |
Caricaceae |
2.27 |
| 40 |
Phyllanthaceae |
2.27 |
| 41 |
Passifloraceae |
2.27 |
| 42 |
Pedaliaceae |
2.27 |
| 43 |
Rutaceae |
2.27 |
| 44 |
Connaraceae |
2.27 |
Table 7. Recipes listed by herbalists for anti-ulcer plants.
| N° |
Number of plants |
Recipe compositions |
Parts used |
Forms of use |
Sides effects |
| 1 |
5 |
Eucalyptus globulus; Eucalyptus radiata |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Eugenia aromatica |
Dry flower |
| Xylopia aethiopica |
Seeds |
| Monodora myristica |
Seeds |
| Acacia nilotica adansonii |
Seeds |
| 2 |
3 |
Spondias mombin |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Citrus limon |
Leaves |
| Jatropha multifida |
Leaves |
| 3 |
6 |
Acacia nilotica adansonii |
Seeds |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 3 |
6 |
Carissa spinarum |
Stems |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Anchomanes difformis |
Leaves |
| Ocimum canum |
Leaves |
| Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves |
| Tetrapleura tetraptera |
Seeds |
| 4 |
3 |
Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Lantana camara |
Leaves |
| Piper guineense |
Seeds |
| 5 |
6 |
Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Passiflora foetida |
Leaves |
| Rhaphiostylis beninensis |
Leaves and Stems |
| Kigelia africana |
Fruits |
| Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
| Clausena anisata |
Roots |
| 6 |
2 |
Phyllanthus amarus |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Momordica charantia L. |
Leaves and Stems |
| 7 |
1 |
Zea mays |
Fresh Seeds |
Piling |
N/A |
| Peak milk |
N/A |
| 8 |
9 |
Acacia ilotica ou adansonii |
Seeds |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Momordica charantia L. |
Leaves and Stems |
| 9Phyllanthus amarus |
Leaves and Stems |
| Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves and Stems |
| Lantana camara |
Leaves and Stems |
| Hyptis suaveolens |
Leaves and Stems |
| Piper guineense |
Seeds |
| Allium sativum |
Pods |
| Piper guineense |
Seeds |
| 9 |
5 |
Khaya senegalensis |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Terminalia glaucescens |
Roots |
| Pseudocedrela kotschyi |
Roots |
| Combretum racemosum |
Roots |
| Caesalpinia pucherrima |
Roots |
| 10 |
4 |
Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Pteleopsis suberosa |
Stem bark |
| 10 |
4 |
Maranthes polyandra |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Ocimum canum |
Leaves and Stems |
| 11 |
10 |
Tetrapleura tetraptera |
Fruits |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Xylopia aethiopica |
Seeds |
| Acacia nilotica adansonii |
Seeds |
| Spondias mombin |
Leaves |
| Alchornea cordifolia |
Leaves |
| Piper guineense |
Seeds |
| Eugenia aromatica |
Seeds |
| Khaya senegalensis |
Stem bark |
| Pteleopsis suberosa |
Stem bark |
| Saba senegalensis (A. DC.) Pichon |
Stem bark |
| 12 |
3 |
Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves and Stems |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Heliotropium indicum |
Leaves and Stems |
| Acanthospermum hispidum DC. |
Leaves |
| 13 |
1 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
Piling |
Avoid raw meats,Gari and galette |
| Calaba blanc |
N/A |
| Honney bee |
N/A |
| 14 |
2 |
Khaya senegalensis |
Stem bark |
Piling |
N/A |
| Honney bee |
Honey |
| 15 |
3 |
Spondias mombin |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Citrus limon |
Leaves |
| Jatropha multifida |
Leaves |
| 16 |
2 |
Jatropha multifida |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
| 17 |
2 |
Phyllanthus amarus |
Leaves and Stems |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Khaya senegalensis |
Stem bark |
| 18 |
7 |
Pteleopsis suberosa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
| Bridelia ferruginea Benth. |
Stem bark |
| Monodora myristica |
Seeds |
| Acacia nilotica adansonii |
Seeds |
| Xylopia aethiopica |
Seeds |
| 19 |
1 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
Piling |
N/A |
| 20 |
2 |
Cocos nucifera |
Juice from unripe fruit |
Piling |
N/A |
| Pupalia lappacea ou Achyranthes lappacea L. ou Pupal lappacea (L.) |
Leaves |
| 21 |
11 |
Eugenia aromatica |
Fruit |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Xylopia aethiopica |
Seeds |
| Monodora myristica |
Seeds |
| Tetrapleura tetraptera |
Fruit |
| Momordica charantia L. |
Leaves |
| Clausena anisata |
Leaves |
| Caesalpinia pucherrima |
Roots |
| Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves and stems |
| Khaya senegalensis |
Stem bark |
| Jatropha multifida |
Leaves |
| Piper guineense |
Seeds |
| 22 |
1 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 23 |
1 |
Calaba blanc |
N/A |
Piling |
N/A |
| Cassytha filiformis |
Leaves and stem |
| 24 |
5 |
Pteleopsis suberosa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
Chilli pepper, hot meal, gari |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
| Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
| Khaya senegalensis |
Stem bark |
| Lippia multiflora |
Leaves and stem |
| 25 |
1 |
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (Cyanthilium cinereum (L) H.Rob) |
Leaves and stem |
Decoction |
N/A |
|
8 |
Spondias mombin |
Roots, Leaves and stem |
Decoction |
N/A |
|
Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
|
Chenopodium ambrosioides |
Leaves |
| 26 |
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad ex. Wendel |
Leaves |
|
Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves |
|
Ocimum canum |
Leaves |
|
Heliotropium indicum |
Leaves |
|
Ehretia cymosa Thonn |
Leaves |
| 27 |
2 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
| 28 |
0 |
Calaba blanc |
N/A |
Piling |
N/A |
| Lait peak |
N/A |
| 29 |
1 |
Persea americana |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 30 |
3 |
Ocimum canum |
Leaves and stem |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Crateva adansonii |
Leaves |
| Dichapetalum madagascariense (DC.) Keay |
Leaves |
| 31 |
1 |
Pupalia lappacea ou Achyranthes lappacea L. ou Pupal lappacea (L.) |
Leaves |
Piling |
N/A |
| Calaba blanc |
N/A |
| 32 |
5 |
Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Momordica charantia L. |
Leaves |
| Chenopodium ambrosioides |
Roots |
| Jatropha multifida |
Leaves |
| Crataeva adansoniiDC |
Leaves |
| 33 |
4 |
Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Pteleopsis suberosa |
Stem bark |
| Maranthes polyandra (Benth.), Prance |
Leaves |
| Ocimum canum |
Leaves |
| 34 |
1 |
Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 35 |
2 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Lippia multiflora |
Leaves and stem |
| 36 |
3 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Lippia multiflora |
Leaves and stem |
| Justicia secunda Vahl |
Flowers |
| 37 |
1 |
Jatropha multifida |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 38 |
1 |
Kigelia africana |
Fruits |
Maceration |
Avoid spicy or fermented foods |
| 39 |
1 |
Rourea coccinea |
Leaves |
Piling |
N/A |
| 40 |
2 |
Jatropha multifida |
Leaves and Roots |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Catharanthus roseus |
Whole plant or leaves |
| 41 |
3 |
Ocimum canum |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Dichapetalum madagascariense (DC.) Keay |
Leaves |
| Crateva adansonii |
Leaves |
| 42 |
4 |
Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
|
N/A |
| 42 |
4 |
Lantana camara |
Leaves |
|
N/A |
| Erythrina senegalensis |
Leaves |
| Carica papaya |
Flowers, Leaves and Roots |
| 43 |
1 |
Sida acuta |
Whole plant |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 44 |
6 |
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloïdes (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler |
Roots |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Kigelia africana |
Fruit |
| Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel |
Roots |
| Heliotropium indicum |
Leaves |
| Newbouidia leavis |
Stem bark and Roots |
| Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
| 45 |
1 |
Khaya senegalensis |
Leaves, Roots, Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 46 |
3 |
Sida acuta |
Leaves and stem |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Corchorus olitorius L |
Laves and stem |
| Citrus limon |
Fruits |
| 47 |
4 |
Senna siamea |
Roots, Leaves, Stem bark |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Leaves |
| Capsicum frutescens |
Seeds |
| Cymbopogon citratus |
Leaves |
| 48 |
4 |
Spondias mombin |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Persea americana |
Leaves |
| Citrus limon |
Leaves |
| Cymbopogon citratus |
Leaves |
| 49 |
2 |
Corchorus olitorius L |
Leaves and stem |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Citrus limon |
Fruits |
| 50 |
2 |
Senna siamea |
Leaves and stem |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Sida acuta |
Leaves |
| 51 |
2 |
Anacardium occidentale |
Stem bark |
Decoction |
Milk, gari |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
| 52 |
1 |
Phyllanthus amarus |
Whole plant |
Infusion |
N/A |
| 53 |
2 |
Sansevieria liberica |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Citrus limon |
Leaves |
| 54 |
2 |
Senna siamea |
Leaves, Stem and Roots |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Capsicum frutescens |
7 fruit for woman and 9 for man |
| 55 |
1 |
Senna siamea |
Leaves, Stem bark, Roots |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 56 |
2 |
Phyllanthus amarus |
Whole plant |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Eugenia aromatica |
Flowers |
| 57 |
2 |
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad ex. Wendel |
Leaves |
Decoction |
Cold meal, soft drink, fruit |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Leaves |
| 58 |
2 |
Sida acuta |
Whole plant |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Citrus limon |
Fruits |
| 59 |
5 |
Dichapetalum madagascariense (DC.) Keay |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Combretum micranthum |
Leaves |
| Acanthospermum hispidum DC. |
Leaves |
| Cissus quadrangularis |
Leaves |
| Capsicum frutescens |
Fruits |
| 60 |
4 |
Crateva adansonii |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
| Gardenia erubescens Stapf & Huteh |
Leaves |
| Erythrina senegalensis |
Leaves |
| 61 |
2 |
Ceratotheca sesamoides Endl |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Citrus limon |
Leaves |
| 62 |
1 |
Alium cepa |
Pods |
Piling |
N/A |
| 63 |
2 |
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. |
Whole plant |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Citrus limon |
Fruits |
| 64 |
2 |
Corchorus olitorius L |
Whole plant |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Fruit |
| 65 |
2 |
Dichapetalum madagascariense (DC.) Keay |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Cissus quadrangularis |
Leaves |
| 66 |
1 |
Chap chap |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 67 |
1 |
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad ex. Wendel |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| 68 |
2 |
Citrus decumana |
Fruits |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Moringa oleifera Lam |
Leaves |
| 69 |
2 |
Corchorus olitorius L |
Whole plant |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Parkia biglobosa |
Stem bark |
| 70 |
2 |
Cajanus cajan |
Leaves |
Decoction |
N/A |
| Vitellaria paradoxa |
Stem bark |
N/A: Not Applicable.
4. Discussion
The importance of medicinal plants became evident for all as WHO listed 21,000 plants which are extensively used for therapeutic purposes throughout the world [33]. They are known to contain Phytochemicals classified as primary (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, amino acid derivations, etc.) or secondary (e.g. alkaloids, terpenes and terpenoids, phenolic compounds, glycosides, etc.) metabolites according to their metabolic route of origin, chemical structure and function [34]. Herbal products show a wide spectrum of biological activities and thus are efficiently harnessed for managing diseases [35].
To meet the challenge of failure in the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers, an ethnopharmacological survey has been conducted. The populations surveyed are made up of ethnic groups including Fon, Aizo, Mina, Goun, Dendi, Hloua, Houagonou, Ifè and Mahi. This diversity of ethnic groups reflects the ethnic richness of the two research municipalities. This is also reported by Dougnon et al., who found Fon, Aïzo, Mahi, Oueme, Adja, Bariba, Goun, Yoruba, Toffin and Dendi groups [36]. Even if other ethnic groups are represented, it is obvious that the herbalists surveyed during this study are dominated by the Fons. From a religious point of view, we noted the representation of Christianity, Vodoun and Islam. It should be noted that the majority of herbalists surveyed are Christians. This diversity reflects the secular nature of the Republic of Benin, where the religious landscape is made up of three major religions (Vodoun, Christianity and Islam) [37].
Herbalists in the communes of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou are categorized into three levels of education: primary, secondary and university, with primary education being the most represented. Our results on the educational level of respondents are similar to those published by Dougnon et al., even though illiterates were not separated out in our case [36]. Furthermore, the seniority of herbalists is represented in four level, with intervals of 1 to 10 years, 10 to 20 years, 20 to 30 years and 30 to 40 years. The 20 to 30 years seniority was the most representative with 32.14%.
The diversity and equitability index of the interviewees calculated revealed that the Dendi, Ifè and Mina, all equitable in their knowledge of anti-ulcer plants, are likely to know more than the other ethnic groups. This steadfast distribution of knowledge of anti-ulcer plants among the Dendi, Ifè and Mina, three different ethnic groups, seems normal and attests to the fusion between these different ethnic groups in view of this knowledge. As reported, differences in language, in the cultural meaning of the plants, in the context related to cultural identities, and in social networks seem to play a fundamental role in the use, diffusion and maintenance or erosion of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants [38]. On the other hand, respondents practicing Islam are likely to know a lot about anti-ulcer plants compared to those practicing Vodou and Christianity, who tend to have the same level of knowledge of anti-ulcer plants. Indeed, a study by Abreu et al. similarly reported this [39]. In addition, these results could be explained by the value and symbolic efficiency accorded or granted by pre-Islamic and Muslim cosmologies to medicinal plants [40]. Traditional societies have their own understandings of medicine as reported by Lightner et al., according to whom lay people and specialists alike made extensive use of abstract concepts that were not obviously supernatural to describe how local medicines work [41]. The influences of religious background on the knowledge and distribution of medicinal plants are recognized and reported. First of all, religion and traditional medicine are so closely linked that some plants are known as religious [42]. So, Albuquerque et al., reported that Religiosity/spirituality (and the dimensions of Commitment and Religious and Spiritual History, in particular) act to protect structural and functional elements of local medical systems (LMSs) and by providing protection, the LMS benefits from greater resilience, at both the individual and population levels. Based on these findings, they suggest that the socialization process resulting from the religious phenomenon has contributed to the complexity and maintenance of local medical systems (LMSs) by means of the interaction of individuals as they engage in their religious observances, thus facilitating cultural transmission [43]. By contrast, religious characteristics such as self-isolation from other cultures might be one of the reasons for such a difference [44]. However, the divergence of said ethnic groups from others in the knowledge of these plants, exhibits an indissolubility of knowledge [39]. The multiple regression analysis carried out reports that neither ethnic group, nor level of education and religion predicts the distribution of knowledge of anti-ulcer plants. Nevertheless, Pérez-Nicolás et al. reported that age and occupation predicted 54% variation in study populations’ knowledge of medicinal plants [45]. This discrepancy between our results could be explained by the fact that our study only considered herbalists.
Plant species from the Benin pharmacopoeia used by herbalists in the communes of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou for the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers were reported. A total of 71 species were listed among which the 12 most frequently cited, in decreasing order of frequency, were Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa, Ocimum gratissimum, Khaya senegalensis, Citrus limon, Acacia nilotica ou adansonii, Ocimum canum, Phyllanthus amarus, Senna siamea, Piper guineense, Momordica charantia, Pteleopsis suberosa, Spondias mombin, Sida acuta, Jatropha multifida, Heliotropium indicum, Eugenia aromatica and Crateva adansonii. These species were heterogeneously and co-dominantly cited. Firstly, Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and Ocimum gratissimum are co-dominant and then Khaya senegalensis, Citrus limon, Acacia nilotica or adansonii, Ocimum canum, Phyllanthus amarus and Senna siamea too. These results are a kind of translation of those obtained by Ouachinou et al. who found 158 medicinal species belonging to 60 families whose population agreed more on the use of Khaya senegalensis, Anacardium occidentale, Cassia sieberiana, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Vitellaria paradoxa to treat gastrointestinal diseases in cattle in Benin [46]. Among the anti-ulcer plants we have identified, Anacardium occidentale; Bambusa vulgaris; Khaya senegalensis; Ocimum gratissimum are reported in an ethnobotanical study by Dougnon, et al. as used against diarrhoea [36], Vitelaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa have been reported for their use against gastrointestinal diseases in Benin [47]. In addition, Xylopia aethiopica, Acanthospermum hispidum, Heliotropium indicum, Combretum micranthum, Pteleopsis suberosa, Acacia nolitica, Parkia biglobosa, Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, Vitellaria paradoxa, Bambousa vulgaris, Cymbopogon citratus, Carica papaya were listed as antiulcer plants in an ethnopharmacological study carried out in Burkina Faso [48]. All the species cited are grouped into 44 taxonomic families, of which Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Sapotaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae, Annonaceae, Meliaceae, Malvaceae, Combretaceae and Boraginaceae are the most representative. Meanwhile, Ouachinou et al. reported Leguminosae and Combretaceae to be highly represented in addition of 31 families mentioned as heavily used and the most importants are Zygophyllaceae, Phytolaccaceae, Rubiaceae, Lamiaceae, Loranthaceae, Thymelaeaceae and Flacourtiaceae [46]. On the other hand, Lema et al. recorded 113 species belonging to 48 botanical families, 18 of which are included in the families listed in our study, namely Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Sapotaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae, Annonaceae, Meliaceae, Malvaceae, Combretaceae, Boraginaceae, Poaceae, Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, Anacardiaceae, Bignoniaceae, Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Caricaceae [48].
A total of 70 anti-ulcer recipes made from medicinal plants and/or non-wood resources were given by the herbalists surveyed. This number validly represents more than a quarter of the 279 recipes reported by Lema et al. in Burkina Faso and almost 4 times the 18 recipes composed from 16 species reported by Sidio et al. in the Sub-Prefecture of Yopohué in the Centre-West of Côte d’Ivoire for the treatment of gastro-intestinal ulcers [48] [49].
The results of this survey constitute a database of medicinal plants used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers, which can be used for in-depth studies aimed at identifying molecules active against the disease of interest. Future studies will involve determining the chemical composition of the various species thus identified and characterizing their biological activities. Once identified, evaluated and approved, these molecules can be produced by the method of Plant Pharmaceutical Production using a synthetic biology approach, for which Plants such as alfalfa, barley, corn, duckweed, rice, safflower and tobacco are known and have received Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) regulatory permits for field trials [50].
5. Conclusion
Benin boasts a wealth of flora, with over 30,700 specimens with therapeutic properties listed. We carried out an ethno-pharmacological survey among herbalists in the communes of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou to identify the medicinal plant species used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers. We determined 70 anti-ulcer recipes made up of medicinal plant species and/or non-floristic resources and composed of 71 species, of which Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and Ocimum gratissimum were the first 03 most cited, and the Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Sapotaceae families were the most strongly represented. A consistent distribution of knowledge of anti-ulcer plants was observed among the Dendi, Ifè and Mina, and respondents practicing Islam were more likely to know many anti-ulcer plants than those practicing Vodou and Christianity. The results of this study provide a good archive for the selection of plant species for further study in the formulation of improved traditional medicines.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Typing in Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Abomey-Calavi, 05 BP1604 Cotonou, Benin, for providing necessary financial assistance with the AAS analysis.