Traditional Use of Medicinal Plants Confirmed by the Baka in Southern and Eastern Cameroon ()
1. Introduction
Africa is home to a rich variety of plant species, many of which have important medicinal uses. These plants play a central role in the practices of folk pharmacopoeia [1]. Medicinal plants are highly valuable resources, both for local populations and for the pharmaceutical industry. They offer a significant alternative and complement to modern healthcare systems [2]. According to [3], modern medicine is currently lacking in new treatments. Furthermore, the process of developing a new drug can take many years, making it unable to provide effective solutions for certain diseases and increasing resistance to conventional medicines [4]-[6]. As a result, the pharmaceutical industry has shown a growing interest in ethnobotanical studies of plants, which continue to yield a range of promising molecules [7] [8]. Traditional medicine, therefore, appears to be the most suitable alternative for addressing gaps in healthcare needs [9].
Qualitative ethnobotanical surveys have proven to be one of the most reliable approaches to new drug discovery [10]. This is because, in addition to clearly identifying the plants cited, they aim to characterize the traditional uses or recipes made from these plants by local populations. Several research studies conducted in various partis of Africa have highlighted the potential of medicinal plants used by local peoples to ethnomedicine. These include a floristic and ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Baka Pygmies on the periphery of the Ipassa Biosphere Reserve, Gabon [11], an ethnobotanical and floristic study of some medicinal plants marketed in Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo [12], on the ethnobotany and phytomedicine of medicinal plants in Douala [13] and on the ethnobotanical study of plants marketed in the city of Douala in Cameroon [14].
However, one of the fundamental problems that undermines the promotion of traditional medicine or the development of ITM based on traditional knowledge is the lack of veracity of the information provided by respondents. Often, much of this information is incorrect. The main answer therefore lies in the search for analytical methods to highlight among the large mass of information collected, those that can be considered as confirmed for use for health problems. Several authors have contributed in this direction with the development of certain indices to determine the most significant and confirmed uses of plants for the health problems indicated. This is the case, for example [15]-[18] with the confirmation index (ICs or ICF) used to assess agreement between informants on plant use. Also [19] and [20] with the relative frequency of citation index (RFC) used to explore the significance or importance of species in an area; [21] with the fidelity level (FL) used to quantify the importance of the species for a given purpose. The combination of the differents ethnobotanical parameters/indices can therefore be used to refine the list of plants confirmed for their traditional uses. This article aims to highlight among the plants used by Baka, those confirmed for their uses in traditional medicine. The specific objectives are to characterize the Baka flora and highlight significant uses.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
This work was carried out in fourteen (14) villages in two regions of Cameroon: East and South. The study villages are located in the districts of Mintom, Dimako, Lomié and Yokadouma. The climate is equatorial and humid. Rainfall averages between 1500 and 2000 mm per year, and some precipitation is common even during the dry seasons [22]. Mean annual temperature is between 23˚C and 25˚C, fluctuating slightly between seasons. There are four seasons: a major dry season, a minor rainy season, a minor dry season, and a major rainy season [23]-[25]. The major vegetation type is a mixture of evergreen and semi-deciduous forests [26]. These four districts/subdivisions are in the evergreen Cameroonian -Congolese forests, precisely in the Guineocongolese region.
2.2. Data Collection
Data collection started with an information and sensitization meeting of rural communities to obtain their consent. Before starting the survey in each village, we held meetings to inform the villagers of the objectives of our work and to set appointments. The informants were selected at random. Useful and original information on the popular use of medicinal plants was collected from anyone (Healer or not) who voluntarily agreed to receive us, regardless of gender. In each household surveyed, the various members were asked to provide information on any illnesses that they are often used to treat. Information related to medico-magical effects was not requested, to generate much more audience with informants. During the interview, we thought it best to start from the diseases to the plants, rather than going the other way around. By showing our interlocutor a sample of a plant and asking about its uses, we risked encouraging him to invent recipes [27]. Guides were engaged in each village to facilitate communication with the people surveyed. A semi-structured interview method based on a questionnaire sheet was used [28]. Data concerning the details of the recipes were collected according to a standardized framework and inspired by the files proposed in the database of Traditional Medicine and Pharmacopoeia under the acronym Pharmel [29]. This sheet is composed of 5 parts, namely: 1) the identification of the informant, 2) the therapeutic indications, 3) the characteristics of the plant material used, 4) the methods of preparation and administration of the remedy, 5) and the comments. At least two plant samples were collected during the interviews in each zone. They are logded in the HNC in Yaoundé. A total of 221 informants, including both male and female, in 14 villages belonging to four subdivisions were interviewed. The distribution of these people by subdivision is such that: Dimako (33 informants), Lomié (39), Mintom (74) and Yokadouma (75). Respondents age is in the range [18 - 60[ years.
2.3. Data Processing and Analysis
The sample is assumed to be random: the presence of information in the sample has no influence on the probability of the presence of other information. It is this hypothesis that seems possible to us on the collection of data and on the population studied (all plants used by Baka people in the Mintom subdivision). Therefore, non-parametric statistical techniques will be used [30].
2.3.1. Methodology for the Individualization of Groups
A plant or a recipe is considered to have a convergence of use when it is employed by at least two persons to treat the same disease/ailment. The data should be collected uniformly using a standard protocol across all households, irrespective of the varying roles of the respondents (healers, village chief). This consistent approach helps avoid biases that may arise from the specialization of certain individuals, such as healers. Comparisons are made for the same health issue, allowing for a reliable analysis of plant use patterns. The distinction between plant uses can be based on either the presence or absence of plants or the frequency of citations (number of times a plant is mentioned). The unit of analysis here is the village. Pearson’s chi-squared test (X2) is employed to statistically differentiate between the groups [30].
The chi-square independence test (special case)
In this case, the groups studied must be compared in pairs [30]. The 2 × 2 contingency tables (chi-square test) will be used to see whether, for health problems, the two groups to be compared use the same plants or not. The chi-square independence test will thus be used in the same way as Sørensen’s coefficient. It is used to see whether, for a given therapeutic indication, the citation weight (evaluated as the number or proportion of citations) of plant species varies or not with geographical zone. In other words, if the citation weight of a species is similar in all zones. The null hypothesis is H0: P1 = P2 = P3 = … = Pn. Where numbers a, b, c and d are defined in Table 1.
From the previous table, X2 observed is calculated by the following formula:
Table 1. X2 contingency table 2 × 2.
|
Group I |
Total |
Presence |
Absence |
Group II |
Presence |
a |
b |
a + b |
Absence |
c |
d |
c + d |
Total |
a + c |
b + d |
a + b + c + d |
a: number of species common to the 2 groups; b: number of species-specific to group II; c: number of species specific to group I; d: number of species absent in groups I and II.
If X2obs > X2 theoretical, we reject the hypothesis of independence of the groups compared; in other words, there are similarities in the use of plants between the two groups. In this work, the threshold used is a = 5%; and therefore, X2(1 − a) at the degree of freedom of 1, is equal to 3.84.
2.3.2. Search for the Most Significant Usages
Three different indices were used to highlight the most significant usages or plants: 1) the tradi-therapeutic interest index or TiI [27], 2) the Use Agreement Value Index or UAV [15] and 3) the performance index reference [31], the Spatial use convergency or SUC [27]. (Table A1)
The Traditherapeutic interest index (TiI)
The tradi-therapeutic interest index (TiI) assumes that “when two people or two groups of people do not significantly share the same plant species to treat a specific disease, the few species that are subject of a convergence of use in these two groups are of high tradi-therapeutic interest” [27]. The principle of the method consists of first identifying, through a test of X2 (special case), pairs of groups which do not use the same plants. All the species mentioned in each of these pairs are automatically qualified as interesting. For a species, this interest increases with the number of groups that share or use the indicated species. The Tradi-therapeutic interest index (TiI) is then determined for each species by calculating the average of the presence (value 1) of the species in all the groups surveyed.
, with TiIs; Index of tradi-therapeutic interest of the species s in the groups surveyed, Pres-s: presence of the species s in a group (Pres-s = 1), Ng: Number of groups surveyed. The value of TiI varies from 0 to 1 such that [0 - 0.25[: low; [0.25 - 0.5[: medium; [0.5 - 0.75[: high; [0.75 - 1]: very high.
The Use Agreement Value Index (UAV)
The UAV allows a better interpretation of the medicinal cultural value of plants reference [32]. It combines the Use Value Index (UV) [33] and the Confirmation Index (CI) which allows to assess or express the agreement of informants on the plants used [15].
Uis indicates the number of uses of the species mentioned by the informant i and ns corresponds to the number of people who mentioned this species. The CIs range from 0 to 1, a value close to 0 indicates that informants disagree on the plants used, while a value close to 1 indicates a strong consensus around the use of the indicated plant. Na is the number of people who mentioned the species “a” and Nt the total number of people surveyed.
The Spatial Use Convergence Index (SUC)
The Spatial Use Convergence Index (SUC) proposed by [27] is used to assess similarities in the use of plants for the same health problem. This index is based on the following hypothesis: “A plant is confirmed for its use in traditional medicine when it is cited by at least two people in the treatment of the same condition. This confirmation is even more important when these people are based in different regions [27]. SUC is therefore determined by an arbitrary scale ranging from 0 to 1 as follows: SUC = 0 when the plant species is cited by only one person, the importance of that plant is low; SUC = 0.5 when the plant is cited by at least two people in the same site, the importance is medium; SUC = 0.75 when the plant is cited in two different sites, the importance is high; and SUC = 1 when the plant is mentioned in all three sites, the importance of that plant is very high. So for example, if the ethnobotanical survey was carried out in five groups or 5 villages as in our case and the species Carpolobia alba was mentioned in 3 villages, IiTCarpolobia alba would be equal to 3/5, or 0.6.
Summary of significant uses with the UAV, SUC and TiI indices
The three indices were analyzed and compared to determine if they yield the same results. To facilitate comparison, the values of each index (UAV, SUC and TiI) for different plants were categorised into 4 levels 1: low, 2: medium, 3: high, and 4: very high. This classification allows for easier comparison and correspondence among the indices, facilitating the calculation of the degree of correlation or dissimilarity.
We used the Pearson correlation and Bray-Curtis dissimilarity tests to assess the degree of alignment among the indices in identifying plants of particular interest, or those confirmed for local use in treating health problems. Pearson’s value close to 1 or with p-value less than 0.05 reflects a strong correlation; while that of Bray and Curtis close to 0 shows a small distance of dissimilarity.
Performance Index Calculation and Analysis
The Performance Index was calculated according to the method described by [31]. For data analysis, we define “specific flora” as the list of plants used to treat a specific ailment, symptom, or physiological effect. In contrast, “global flora” refers to the total list of plants recorded for treating all types of ailments within a specific group, such as the Baka Pygmies.
To understand the relationship between “specific flora” and “global flora,” consider the following: if the use of a particular plant for a specific ailment is randomly selected, the proportion of citations for that plant relative to the total citations (P1) should be similar to the proportion of specific flora to the global flora (P2). To illustrate the selectivity of a plant for a specific ailment, we compare the expected and observed values of the proportion of citations for a plant for a specific disease.
The difference (D) between the two proportions is used to define a performance index (PI), which ranges from 0 to 3 based on the following scale:
PI = 0 (Not significant): If P1 − P2 < 0, indicating that the plant is rejected.
PI = 1 (Average performance): If 0 < P1 − P2 ≤ 1/3.
PI = 2 (High performance): If 1/3 < P1 − P2 ≤ 2/3.
PI = 3 (Very high performance): If P1 − P2 > 2/3.
Example Calculation: Alstonia boonei for Malaria Treatment
To illustrate this, consider the performance index of the plant Alstonia boonei, used for treating malaria:
C1: Number of citations of Alstonia boonei for treating malaria = 73.
C2: Number of citations of A. boonei in the global list = 119.
C3: Total number of citations for malaria = 305.
C4: Total number of citations for all ailments = 1635.
The observed proportion (P1) and the theoretical proportion (P2) are calculated as follows:
The difference (D) between P1 and P2 is:
D = P1 − P2 = 0.61 − 0.18 = 0.43
Since 0.43 falls between 1/3 and 2/3, the performance index (PI) for Alstonia boonei is calculated as:
PI = 2
This indicates a high performance for the use of Alstonia boonei in treating malaria.
Proportions and Ratios
The proportions used are derived from the ratios of the number of citations for diseases. The performance index thus provides a quantitative measure to assess the efficacy and significance of specific plants in traditional medicinal practices, ensuring a clear understanding of their role and importance within the local medicinal context.
3. Results
3.1. Diversity of Medicinal Plants Used by Baka in Fourth
Subdivisions
Three hundred and seventy-eight (378) plant species used in the Baka pharmacopoeia were identified. These species are distributed in 270 genera and 85 botanical families. The most diverse families are Fabaceae (35 species), Euphorbiaceae (34), Malvaceae (21), Apocynaceae (16) and Annonaceae (15). On the contrary, the most cited families are Apocynaceae (14.01% of citations), Fabaceae (8.52%), Arecaceae (7.73%), Marantaceae (6.94%) and Annonaceae (6.46%).
The twelve (12) most important plant species in terms of number of citations are shown in Figure 1(a). At all sites, Elaeis guineensis is the species most mentioned (7.35% of citations), followed by Alstonia boonei (6.28) and Picralima nitida (4.02%). Figure 1(b) shows the most frequently cited species at each site. Among these, Alstonia boonei and Elaeis guineensis appear in the top 3 of the plant species most mentioned by the population for health care.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. (a) and (b) Relative importance of the most cited plants in the Baka pharmacopoeia.
3.2. Similarities in Use of the Medicinal Plants
The similar usage of the plants is highlighted because of the observed spatial use convergences and the relative performance of the plants used for health problems.
3.2.1. Convergence of Spatial Uses
The convergence of spatial uses allows highlighting the most significant plants confirmed for their use in the traditional pharmacopoeia. This is done through three indices including UAV, SUC and TiI.
The plant species with the highest use agreement indices are in order of importance: Elaeis guineensis (2.49), Alstonia boonei (2.13), Capsicum frutescens (1.36), Maranthochloa purpurea (1), Picralima nitida (0.98), Annickia affinis (0.96) and Haumania danckelmaniana (0.9).
The highest values in spatial use convergence are found for the following species. Eighty-one (81) species are cited in all four districts (SUC = 1). The most cited are: Alstonia boonei, Capsicum frutescens, Picralima nitida, Annickia affinis, Baillonella toxisperma, Diospyros crassiflora, Tabernaemontana crassa and Cylicodiscus gabunensis. Sixty-two (62) in three districts SUC = 0.75): Ceiba pentandra, Bidens pilosa, Chrysophyllum lacourtianum, Celtis adolfi-friderici et Ficus mucuso. Sixty-seven (67) in two districts (SUC = 0.5): Combretum mucronatum, Mitragyna stipulosa, Trichoscypha acuminata, Jateorhiza macrantha, Scorodophloeus zenkeri, Poga oleosa, Aframomum melegueta, Beilschmiedia gaboonensis and Cola gigeantea. The remaining one hundred and sixty-nine (169) are cited by at least two people in the same village (SUC = 0.25). Among them: Allanblackia floribunda, Senna hirsuta, Landolphia owariensis and Eribroma oblongum.
The analysis of the convergences of use based on the Chi-square test showed two significant divergences on the six combinations of districts done for the determination of the traditherapeutic interest index of the plants for a specific disease. Ninety-three (93) species obtained a value of TiI1 > 0. The more this value tends towards 1, the greater its importance. These species are automatically qualified as interesting in the treatment of diseases. Aframomum danielli, Afrostyrax lepidobotrys and Greenwayodendron suaveolens possess a medium value of traditherapeutic interest index (TiI = 0.33) for headache treatment. In the case of diarrheoa, Xylopia hypolampra, Tabernaemontana crassa and Manniophyton fulvum are most indicated (TiI = 0.33). For malaria, species such Alstonia boonei, Annickia affinis and Chromoleana odorata present medium value of traditherapeutic interest index (TiI = 0.33). Concerning Cough, Pcynanthus angolensis, Hylodendron gabunense and Bridelia micrantha are also interesting for treatment (TiI = 0.33).
3.2.2. Relative Performance of Some Plants
Plants are sometimes used in association or not, for a multi-target therapy. The performance index is therefore useful to determine the performance or effectiveness of a plant for a particular disease. All species with an index greater than or equal to 1 are considered high performing. For malaria cases for example, 41 species performed well (PI ≥ 1) including Alstonia boonei (PI = 2), Annickia affinis, Capsicum frutescens, Harungana madagascariensis, Ocimum gratissimum, Picralima nitida, Rauvolfia macrophylla, Tabernaemontana crassa and Lepidobotrys staudtii (PI = 1). Regarding diarrhoea, 35 species were found to perform well with an PI varying between 1 and 2. Manihot esculenta is reported to be more effective (PI = 2) in the treatment of diarrhea. As for cough, many species are performed. Among these: Trichoscypha acuminata, Hylodendron gabunense (PI = 3), Eribroma oblongum (PI = 2), Chrysophyllum lacourtianum, Desbordesia glauscescens and Bridelia micrantha (PI = 1). Several species are used for headache treatment. Species with very high performance (PI = 3) include Amaranthus hybridus, Drypetes gilgiana, Solanum lycopersicum. While Baphia leptobotrys, Tabernaemontana pendutiflora, Raphia regalis, Millettia senegana and Streblus usamberansis have a high performance (PI = 2) for the same disease.
Some of the species listed have multiple uses. Among the most significant plants according to their use, Alstonia boonei, Picralima nitida and Elaies guineensis possesses a performance index of 1 respectively for 12, 6 and 23 ailments. For example, Alchornea floribunda is listed as a high performer for the treatment of diarrhoea. While it performs moderately well for stomachache (1) and easy childbirth (1). Afzelia bipidensis, for its part, is mentioned in the treatment of hernia, rata, cough and sexual weakness, for which it registers an average performance (1). Other plants, such as Mondia whitei, are mainly cited for the treatment of diseases linked to the digestive system, such as worms (PI = 1), diarrhea (1) and colic (1). On the other hand, some species have no performance for one illness: but are very effective for other health problems. This is the case of Calpocalyx dinklagei has a PI = 2 for menstrual periods but low performance for headaches.
3.2.3. Summary of Significant Uses
The various significant uses indices compared two by two revealed a p-value < 2.2e-16 for the Pearson correlation test and a value of less than 0.5 (the reference value) for Bray and Curtis dissimilarity distance. These results indicate a positive correlation between UAV, SUC and TiI indices. They confirm that the three indices are evolving in the same direction for determine plants confirmed for their usage in traditional medicine.
4. Discussion
4.1. Floristic Composition in Fourth Subdivisions Investigated
A total of 378 plant species recorded are distributed in 270 genera and 85 botanical families. Three hundred and seventy-eight (378) plant species used in the Baka pharmacopoeia were identified. These species are distributed in 270 genera and 85 botanical families. The most diverse families are Fabaceae (35 species), Euphorbiaceae (34), Malvaceae (21), Apocynaceae (16) and Annonaceae (15). The preponderance of the first two families is linked to the presence of flavonoids, terpenes and alkaloids [17] [34] [35]. The use of these botanical families for traditional medical practices is explained by their ability to satisfy the needs of populations in different health problems, through their richness in secondary metabolites. [35] showed a correlation between the known biological activities of the isolated compounds and the ethnobotanical uses of the plants containing them. The same author reveals that Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Sapotaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae and Fabaceae are rich in alkaloids, terpenoids and flavonoids. These bioactive metabolites are responsible for antimalarial, hepatoprotective, vasorelaxant, anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, estrogenic, antifungal and antisalmonella activities [35]. In medicine, alkaloids alone are used as major analgesics (morphine), antimalarials (quinine), to combat excess uric acid (colchicine), as paralytic substances (curare, caffeine), narcotics (cocaine, mescaline), cholinergics (pilocarpine) or anticancer agents (vinblastine, vincristine) [36]. In terms of medicinal plants used in Kinshasa, the Leguminosae and Rubiaceae families are the richest [12]. The study’s findings contradict those of [37], who found Lamiaceae (20 species), Asteraceae (11), Apiaceae (8), Fabaceae (7), Rosaceae (6), and Poaceae (5) to be the richest families; of [38] in the Daloa region, where Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae are also cited as the most dominant families; and [39] in the village of Ngadisari in Indonesia, where Poaceae and Zingiberaceae (4) and Apiaceae (3) are reported to be the most diverse. And in the mountainous region of Kahuzi-Biega, where Asteraceae (5), Euphorbiaceae (4), Fabaceae and Rubiaceae (3) are the most diverse [40].
The relative importance of medicinal plants based on the weight of citations highlights Elaies guineensis (7.35%), Alstonia boonei (6.28%), Capsicum frutescens (4.02%), Maranthochloa purpurea (2.96%) and Picralima nitida (2.88%) as the species most in demand for health care in all 4 subdivisions. This result can be explained by the fact that some of these species are used either as inputs or recipes in ethnomedical practices to either facilitate absorption of the medicine or amplify its action. Certain organs, especially fruits and seeds, are used as auxiliary or adjuvant ingredients, to reinforce the therapeutic action of the main components of the recipes and also to treat the secondary symptoms of the disease [41]. This is the case with Elaies guineensis, whose nut oil is mixed with leaves, for example, to be applied as a suppository in the case of hemorrhoids [4]. Or because they contain bioactive principles responsible for their biological activity in phytotherapy. Indeed, alkaloids, phenolic compounds (flavonoids, tannins, quinones, coumarins) and terpene compounds (triterpenes, steroids, saponosides) confer remarkable properties on chillies, which could justify their antimicrobial and antifungal activities [42] [43]. While [44] show that capsaicin present in Capsicum frutescens possesses an anti-inflammatory effect comparable to the inhibition of inflammation produced by diclofenac. A. boonei extracts contain alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, tannins, saponins, anthraquinones and terpenoids [45]. They are also known for their antioxidant, antimalarial, antimicrobial, anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties [46] [47]. Picralima nitida is also recognized for its therapeutic properties. Its fruit extracts are rich in alkaloids, sterols, polyphenols, saponosides and flavonoids, giving it antioxidant properties; used in the treatment of malaria and diabetes [48]. In addition to similar constituents, [49] found tannins and phytophenols, cardiac glycosides and anthraquinones in the seeds of this species. The assortment of secondary metabolites would be responsible for the high demand for these species in traditional medicine. The unanimous use of most of these plants for illnesses on the scale of their distribution and through the multiplicity of peoples with diverse and varied customs can be considered indisputable proof of their therapeutic virtues or potential.
4.2. Significant Uses, Biological Activity and Ethnogeographical
Convergence in the Uses of Some Medicinal Plants
The potency of medicinal plants depends solely on their active phytochemical components, which produces a definite physiological action on the human body and are responsible for their numerous bioactivities [6]. Some plants retained in this work have already been recognized as having biological activities against several diseases due to their richness in active molecules. In medicine, alkaloids are used for their many therapeutic properties. a summary of ethnobotany, ethnogeographical convergence and biological properties of some plants confirmed is presented.
Alstonia boonei De Wild. is a widely cited species. It has the highest values in spatial convergence indices (UAV = 2.13; TiI = 1 and SUC = 0.33), and a good performance for malaria (PI = 2), jaundice, intestinal worms, common cold and galactogen (PI = 1). A usage against malaria was found by [50] with also an PI = 2. The bark of Alstonia boonei, contains indole alkaloids, hence their interest in malaria control [36]. [6] noted that leaves extract of A. boonei showed high parasitaemia suppression; this could be due to the presence of phytochemical compounds such as terpenoids, alkaloids, phenols and flavonoids which are thought to be responsible for antiplasmodial activity and justifying its usage in the management of malaria in Nigeria. Similair uses are observed by [50]-[56]. The hydroethanolic extracts of Alstonia boonei contain alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, saponins, anthraquinones, and terpenoids [45]. Alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins are known for their antioxidant, antimalarial, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities [46] [47].
Annickia affinis Versteegh & Sosef, closely related to Annickia chlorantha Setten & P. J. Maas (both species also referred to as Enantia chlorantha Oliv.) [57]. A. affinis possesses respectively values of 0.96; 1 and 0.33. This specie has a medium-performing plant (PI = 1) for typhoid fever, aches and pains, influenza, jaundice, chest pain, malaria and intestinal worms. In Yaoundé markets, the plant is used to treat typhoid fever, jaundice and malaria, with a performance index equal to 1 [58]. A few similar uses have been identified outside our study sites. It is reported to be active against Plasmodium spp [59]. A. affinis leaves and bark have been shown to be active against Plasmodium falciparum [60]. Convergences in use are also reported by [38] [53]-[55] [59] [61] [62] and. In Dja, this specie performs well against jaundice and malaria as in our study; but also against conjunctivitis, wasting disease, measles and syphilis [27]. Uses against jaundice are reported in Cameroon, Congo-Brazzaville, Central Africa and West Africa [63]. Uses against malaria/fever are indicated in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Congo-Brazzaville. The popularity of Annickia affinis against jaundice in Cameroon may be linked to the yellow color of the stem bark. Their chemical composition is dominated particularly by various isoquinoline alkaloids, as well as by acetogenins and sesquiterpenes, which have been isolated from the bark and leaves. All three of these classes of compounds have been reported to exhibit noteworthy biological activity [57]. The chemical investigation of the stem bark of A. chlorantha led to the isolation of ten known secondary metabolites classified into seven alkaloids, one triterpene, and two steroids [64].
Capsicum frutescens L. also has respectively values of 1.36; 1 and 0.33. It also has a medium performance for chest pain, malaria, back ache, diarrhoea, jaundice and cough. Capsicum frutescens is prescribed for lower back pain contains capsaicin, which [65] reported to have anti-rheumatic properties. [44] shows in their study that capsaicin possesses an anti-inflammatory effect, which is comparable to inhibition of inflammation produced by diclofenac. In contrast, [66] showed that C. frutescens exhibited inhibitory activities against some pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli, Vibrio cholerea, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeroginosa. [67] found the presence of steroids, terpenes, flavonoids, polyphenols and quinones in the extracts of the same species. Alkaloids, phenolic compounds (flavonoids, tanins, quinones, coumarins) and terpene compounds (triterpenes, steroids, saponosides) confer remarkable properties to peppers, which could justify their antimicrobial and antifongic activities [42] [43]. Another genus of capsicum (Capsicum annuum) regularly also prescribed against intestinal worms contain respectively tropanic alkaloids and capsaicin. These alkaloids used against stomachache are said to have effects against gastrointestinal spasms and laxative effects. They increase intestinal peristalsis [65]. [68] reveals that alcohol extracts of C. annuum is used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritisis in southern Ukraine. [69] report that the species possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and is rich in phenolic compounds and capaicin.
Elaeis guineensis (Arecaceae) has values of 2.49; 1 and 0.33. Oil palm has many uses. It is used in medicinal recipes for more than 15 diseases, with average performance (PI = 1). In the Dja pharmacopoeia, it is also used to treat 19 health problems, while in the Yaoundé markets, it is used to treat 4 diseases or physiological effects [58]. The African pharmacopoeia [70] notes its usefulness for the following purposes: wounds, burns, skin infections. Palm and palm kernel oils are also used as decongestants. No toxicity has been reported for palm and palm kernel oils, which are edible. Mucilage is found in vegetative organs such as the male inflorescence of Elaeis guineensis. They are soluble fibers with several medicinal properties. The phytochemical constituents of this species produce anti-cholesterol, anti-constipation, healing, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-microbial and antioxidant effects [71]-[73]. These authors also found that E. guineensis is rich in phenolic compounds, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, steroids and vitamin E isomers. Work has also shown the rich secondary metabolites (tannins, flavonoids, polyphenols and saponosides) of Elaies guineensis were richly responsible for their therapeutic efficacy [74].
Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae) obtained values of 0.98; 1 and 0.33. This specie treats malaria, jaundice, intestinal worms, hernia, ache, diabete and hemmorrage with an average performance. Apart from Cameroon, this specie is found in Nigeria, Congo, Ivory coast, Ghana, Ouganda and RDC where its various organs are used for therapeutic purposes [75]. P. nitida is also used to treat malaria and typhoid fever [13] [76], diabete [77] [78]. Its bark is used in combination to treat COVID-19 [79]. These plant parts are used in 21 treatments in South of Benin. Among them: Malaria, diabete, intestinal worms and colic [80]. Picralima nitida seeds have a potential palliative effect on dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, oxidative stress and insulin resistance [81]. Other properties have been reported for this specie: Anthelmintic [49], antioxidant [48] [78], antimicrobial [82], antitrypanosomal [83], antitussive [84], antifungal [85]. P. nitida contains secondary metabolites including polyphenols, alkaloids, sterols, saponosides, tannins and flavonoids [48] [86] [87].
4.3. Contribution for Suistainable Development
The list of plants confirmed for their uses in traditional medicine constitutes a basis for the development of improved traditional medicines, that will help to promote, maintain and restore the health of the population. These phytomedicines will be accessible to everyone in traditional health centers set up in areas where access to health services is difficult. All the information resulting from this work contributes to raising the standard of living of the most disfavored populations through the creation of jobs, promoting good health and ensuring the well-being of all at any age, and increase national economy. Thus, contributing to the achievement of the objectives 1, 3 and 8 of sustainable development.
5. Conclusion
Traditional medicine is expanding considerably with the introduction of pandemics, emerging diseases and the resistance of certain germs to conventional medicines. As a result, the exploitation of plant resources to overcome various health problems is a palliative. This is also because of their accessibility, but also and above all because of the inexhaustible and renewable active ingredients contained in these plants. The present study has highlighted the plants confirmed for their uses in traditional medicine both within and outside the study area. Spatial use convergences and the performance index highlighted the significant uses (or plants confirmed for their use in local traditional medicine) for the treatment of several diseases. The presence of secondary metabolites, bioactive molecules, is responsible for the pharmacological activity (anticancer, neurological, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antispamodic, antidiarrheal, antiulcer, antihemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, cicatrisant…) of several plants identified in the study. The therapeutic properties conferred by these biomolecules would therefore justifies and reinforces the use of the plant species identified in the Baka pharmocopoeia. The presence of several metabolites in these species also confirms their use to treat several diseases. This research can also be used as an avenue to explore for further work on the little known or not yet explored plant species mentioned, with a view to confirming the effective presence of potentials therapeutic substances. Overall, the Information obtained from this work represents different therapeutic options that can be used by pharmaceutical industries with the formulation of medicines and other improved traditional medicine or improved traditional products (ITM, ITP). In the addition, permit to envisage the possibilities for developing tradi-medical tourism based on medicinal plants derived products from for specific health cases.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Zerca y lejos ONGD, JICA, HNC (National Herbarium of Cameroun) for providing facilities; and also, local people of the study sites for sharing their help, knowledge and know-how during field work.
Appendix
Table A1. Values of UAV, TiI and SUC indices of plants used in traditional medicine.
Plant species |
Family |
UAV |
SUC |
TiI |
Plant species |
Family |
UAV |
SUC |
TiI |
Acacia pennata (L.)
Willd. |
Fabaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Hypselodelphys
scandens Louis & Mullend. |
Marantaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Acmella caulirhiza Delile |
Asteraceae |
0.08 |
1 |
0.33 |
Hypselodelphys sp. |
Marantaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Adenia cissampeloides (Planch. ex Hook.)
Harms |
Passifloraceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Rauecsh. |
Poaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Adenia lobata (Jacq.)
Engl. |
Passifloraceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Ipomoea batatas
(L.) Lam. |
Convolvulaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Aframomum daniellii (Hook. f.) K. Schum. |
Zingiberaceae |
0.33 |
1 |
0.33 |
Ipomoea involucrata Beauv. |
Convolvulaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Aframomum melegueta
K. Schum. |
Zingiberaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Irvingia excels
Mildbr. |
Irvingiaceae |
0.11 |
1 |
0.33 |
Aframomum sp. |
Zingiberaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill. |
Irvingiaceae |
0.22 |
1 |
0.33 |
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus Mildbr. |
Huaceae |
0.19 |
1 |
0.33 |
Irvingia grandifolia (Engl.) Engl. |
Irvingiaceae |
0.10 |
1 |
0.33 |
Afzelia bipindensis Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.09 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Jateorhiza macrantha (Hook. fil.) Exell & Mendonça |
Mennispermaceae |
0.05 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Agelaea pentagyna
(Lam.) Baill. |
Connaraceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Jatropha curcas L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Agelanthus brunneus (Engl.) Balle & N. Hallé |
Loranthaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Kalanchoe pinnata
(Lam.) Pers. |
Crassulaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Ageratum conyzoides L. |
Asteraceae |
0.08 |
0.75 |
0 |
Khaya sp. |
Meliaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Alafia sp. |
Apocynaceae |
0.20 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Klainedoxa gabonensis Pierre ex Engl. |
Irvingiaceae |
0.28 |
1 |
0.33 |
Albizia ferruginea
(Guill. & Perr.) Benth. |
Fabaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Klainedoxa trillesii
Pierre ex Tiegh. |
Irvingiaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Albizia zygia (DC.) J. F. Macbr. |
Fabaceae |
0.05 |
0.5 |
0 |
Laccosperma secundiflorum
(P. Beauv.) Kuntze |
Arecaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Alchornea cordifolia (Schuman. & Thonn.) Müll. Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.04 |
1 |
0.33 |
Landolphia congolensis (Stapf) Pichon |
Apocynaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Alchornea floribunda
Müll. Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.21 |
1 |
0.33 |
Landolphia maxima
(K. Schum.
ex Hallier fil.) Pichon |
Apocynaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Alchornea laxiflora (Benth.) Pax & K. Hoffm. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Landolphia owariensis
P. Beauv. |
Apocynaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Allanblackia floribunda Oliv. |
Clusiaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Landolphia sp. |
Apocynaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Allium cepa L. |
Alliaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Lannea welwitschii (Hiern) Engl. |
Anacardiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Allium sativum L. |
Alliaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Lantanna sp. |
Verbenaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Allophylus bullatus Radlk. |
Sapindaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Lasiodiscus mildbraedii Engl. |
Rhamnaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Aloe sp. |
Zingiberaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Lepidobotrys staudtii Engl. |
Lepidobotryaceae |
0.11 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Alstonia boonei De Wild. |
Apocynaceae |
2.13 |
1 |
0.33 |
Leplaea cedrata
(A. Chev.) E. J. M.
Koenen & J. J. de Wilde |
Meliaceae |
0.05 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Amaranthus hybridus L. |
Amaranthaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Leplaea thompsonii (Sprague & Hutch.)
E. J. M. Koenen &
J. J. de Wilde |
Meliaceae |
0.21 |
1 |
0.33 |
Amaranthus viridus L. |
Amaranthaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Leptaspis cochleata Thwaites |
Poaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Amphimas
pterocarpoides Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.10 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Lipotriche scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) Orchard |
Asteraceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Ananas comosus (L.)
Merr. |
Bromeliaceae |
0.01 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Lomariopsis guineensis (Underw.) Alston |
Lomariopsidaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Aneilema beniniense
(P. Beauv.) Kunth |
Commelinaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Lovoa trichilioides
Harms |
Meliaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Angylocalyx vermeulenii De Wild. |
Fabaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Macaranga monandra Müll. Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Annickia affinis (Exell) Versteegh & Sosef |
Annonaceae |
0.96 |
1 |
0.33 |
Macaranga sp. 1 |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Annona muricata L. |
Annonaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Macaranga sp. 2 |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels |
Annonaceae |
0.32 |
1 |
0.33 |
Maesobotrya barteri (Baill.) Hutch. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Anopyxis klaineana (Pierre) Engl. |
Rhizophoraceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Maesopsis eminii Engl. |
Rhamnaceae |
0.04 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Anthocleista
schweinfurthii Gilg |
Loganiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Mallotus oppositifolius (Geisel.) Mull. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Anthocleista vogelii Planch. |
Loganiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Mammea africana Sabine |
Clusiaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0 |
Anthonotha lamprophylla (Harms) J. Leonard |
Fabaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Mangifera indica L. |
Anacardiaceae |
0.21 |
1 |
0.33 |
Antrocaryon klaineanum Pierre |
Anacardiaceae |
0.06 |
1 |
0.33 |
Manihot esculenta
Crantz |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.12 |
1 |
0.33 |
Aoranthe cladantha
(K. Schum.) Somers |
Rubiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Manniophyton fulvum Mull. Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.22 |
1 |
0.33 |
Arachis hypogaea L. |
Fabaceae |
0.02 |
1 |
0.33 |
Manotes griffoniana Baill. |
Connaraceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Asplenium currori Hooker |
Aspleniaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Mansonia altissima
(A. Chev.) A. Chev. |
Malvaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Asystasia leptostachya Lindau |
Acanthaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Maranthes glabra (Oliv.) Prance |
Chrysobalanaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Autranella congolensis
(De Wild.) A. Chev. |
Sapotaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Maranthochloa purpurea (Ridl.) Milne-Redh. |
Marantaceae |
1.00 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Baillonella toxisperma Pierre |
Sapotaceae |
0.24 |
1 |
0.33 |
Marantochloa cordifolia (K. Schum.) Koechlin |
Marantaceae |
0.16 |
0.75 |
0 |
Baphia leptobotrys Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Marantochloa sp. |
Marantaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Baphia sp. |
Fabaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) Webster |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.04 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Barteria fistulosa Mast. |
Flacourtiaceae |
0.13 |
1 |
0.33 |
Markhamia tomentosa (Benth.) K. Schum. ex Engl. |
Bignoniaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Beilschmiedia
gaboonensis (Meisn.) Benth. & Hook. f. |
Lauraceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Massularia acuminata
(G. Don) Bullock
ex Hoyle |
Rubiaceae |
0.38 |
1 |
0.33 |
Beilschmiedia mannii (Meisn.) Robyns & R. Wilczek |
Lauraceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Benth.) Milne-Redh. |
Marantaceae |
0.24 |
1 |
0.33 |
Bidens pilosa L. |
Asteraceae |
0.11 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Meiocarpidium
lepidotum (Oliv.)
Engl. & Diels |
Annonaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Blighia welwitschii
(Hiern) Radlk. |
Sapindaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Microdesmis puberula Hook. f. ex. Planch. |
Pandaceae |
0.33 |
1 |
0.33 |
Brenania brieyi (De Wild.) E. M. A. Petit |
Rubiaceae |
0.04 |
0.25 |
0 |
Milicia excelsa (Welw.) Berg |
Moraceae |
0.24 |
1 |
0.33 |
Bridelia atroviridis Müll. Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Millettia duchesnei De Wild. |
Fabaceae |
0.06 |
0.25 |
0 |
Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.07 |
1 |
0.33 |
Millettia sanagana
Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.05 |
0.25 |
0 |
Calpocalyx dinklagei Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Millettia sp. |
Fabaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Campylospermum elongatum (Oliv.) Tiegh. |
Ochnaceae |
0.07 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Mimosa pigra L. |
Fabaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. |
Burseraceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0 |
Mimosa pudica L. |
Fabaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Cannabis sativa L. |
Cannabaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Mitragyna ledermannii (K. Krause) Ridsdale |
Rubiaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.00 |
Capsicum annuum L. |
Solanaceae |
0.04 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Mitragyna stipulosa
(DC.) Kuntze |
Rubiaceae |
0.10 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Capsicum frutescens L. |
Solanaceae |
1.36 |
1 |
0.33 |
Momordica cissoides Planch. ex Benth. |
Cucurbitaceae |
0.04 |
0.25 |
0.00 |
Carica papaya L. |
Caricaceae |
0.31 |
1 |
0.33 |
Mondia whitei
(Hook. fil.) Skeels |
Apocynaceae |
0.10 |
0.25 |
0.00 |
Carpoloba alba G. Don |
Polygalaceae |
0.01 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Monodora crispata Engl. |
Annonaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Carpolobia lutea G. Don |
Polygalaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Morinda lucida Benth. |
Rubiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0.00 |
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. |
Malvaceae |
0.18 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Motandra guineensis (Thonn.) A. D. C. |
Apocynaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Celtis adolfi-friderici Engl. |
Cannabaceae |
0.10 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Musa xparadisiaca L. |
Musaceae |
0.21 |
1 |
0.33 |
Celtis mildbraedii Engl. |
Cannabaceae |
0.08 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Musanga cecropioides R. Br. ex Tedlie |
Moraceae |
0.24 |
1 |
0.33 |
Celtis philippensis Blanco |
Cannabaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Myrianthus arboreus P. Beauv. |
Moraceae |
0.29 |
1 |
0.33 |
Celtis tessmannii Rendle |
Cannabaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Nauclea diderrichii
(De Wild.) Merr. |
Rubiaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Cercestis mirabilis
(N. E. Br.) Bogner |
Araceae |
0.02 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Neoboutonia mannii Benth. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.00 |
Chasmanthera
welwitschii Troupin |
Mennispermaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Nephrolepis biserrata (SW.) Schott |
Dryopteridaceae |
0.00 |
0.25 |
0.00 |
Chenopodium ambrossioides L. |
Amaranthaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Nesogordonia papaverifera (A. Chev.) Capuron |
Malvaceae |
0.00 |
0.25 |
0.00 |
Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Jermy |
Thelypteridaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Nicotiana tabacum L. |
Solanaceae |
0.08 |
1 |
0.33 |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob. |
Asteraceae |
0.15 |
1 |
0.33 |
Ocimum gratissimum L. |
Lamiaceae |
0.21 |
1 |
0.33 |
Chrysophyllum
africanum A. DC. |
Sapotaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Octolobus spectabilis Welw. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0.00 |
Chrysophyllum boukokoense (Aubrév. & Pellegr). L. Gaut. |
Sapotaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Olax latifolia Engl. |
Olacaceae |
0.00 |
0.25 |
0.00 |
Chrysophyllum lacourtianum De Wild. |
Sapotaceae |
0.11 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Oldfieldia africana Benth. & Hook. f. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0.00 |
Chrysophyllum sp. |
Sapotaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Olyra latifolia L. |
Poaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Cinnamomum sp. |
Lauraceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Omphalocarpum
elatum Miers |
Sapotaceae |
0.16 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cissus glaucophylla
Hook. f. |
Vitaceae |
0.02 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Oncoba mannii Oliv. |
Flacourtiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Cissus quadrandularis L. |
Vitaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Oncoba sp. 1 |
Flacourtiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Citrus medica L. |
Rutaceae |
0.15 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Oxalis barrelieri L. |
Oxalidaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Citrus x aurantium L. |
Rutaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Palisota bracteosa CB Clarke |
Commelinaceae |
0.18 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cleistopholis glauca
Pierre ex Engl. & Diels |
Annonaceae |
0.06 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Panda oleosa Pierre |
Pandaceae |
0.15 |
1 |
0.33 |
Clerodendrum sp. 2 |
Lamiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Parinari excelsa Sabine |
Chrysobalanaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Clerodendrum sp. 4 |
Lamiaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Paspalum paniculatum L. |
Poaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Clerodendrum sp. 5 |
Lamiaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Passiflora foetida L. |
Passifloraceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0 |
Clerodendrum splendens G. Don |
Lamiaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Paullinia pinnata L. |
Sapindaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Clerodendrum
umbellatum Poir |
Lamiaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Penianthus longifolius Miers |
Mennispermaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Cnetis sp. |
Connaraceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Pentaclethra
macrophylla Benth. |
Fabaceae |
0.46 |
1 |
0.33 |
Coelocaryon preussii Warb. |
Myristicaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Pentadiplandra
brazzeana Baill. |
Pentadiplandraceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Coffea canephora Pierre
ex A. Froehner |
Rubiaceae |
0.05 |
0.5 |
0 |
Pericopsis elata (Harms) Meeuwen |
Fabaceae |
0.05 |
0.25 |
0 |
Cola acuminate
(P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl. |
Malvaceae |
0.07 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Persea americana Mill. |
Lauraceae |
0.08 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cola altissima Engl. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Petersianthus macrocarpus (P. Beauv.) Liben |
Lecythidaceae |
0.23 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cola gigeantea A. Chev. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Phyllocosmus africanus (Hook. fil.) Klotzch |
Ixonanthaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Cola lateritia K. Schum. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Physalis angulata L. |
Solanaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Cola millenii K. Schum. |
Malvaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Picralima nitida (Stapf)
T. Durand & H. Durand |
Apocynaceae |
0.98 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cola rostrata K. Schum. |
Malvaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Piper guineense Schumach & Thonn. |
Piperaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Combretum molle R. Br. Ex. G. Don |
Combretaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Piper umbellatum L. |
Piperaceae |
0.14 |
1 |
0.33 |
Combretum mucronatum Schum. & Thonn. |
Combretaceae |
0.15 |
0.5 |
0 |
Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook. f.) Brenan |
Fabaceae |
0.18 |
1 |
0.33 |
Combretum Platypterum (Welw.) Hutch. & Daziel |
Combretaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0 |
Plagiostyles africana (Müll. Arg.) Prain |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Combretum sp. 1 |
Combretaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Poa annua L |
Poaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Combretum sp. 2 |
Combretaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Poga oleosa Pierre |
Anisophylleaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Combretum sp. 3 |
Combretaceae |
0.08 |
0.25 |
0 |
Pouteria aningeri Baehni |
Sapotaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Copaifera mildbraedii Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.05 |
0.25 |
0 |
Psidium guajava L. |
Myrtaceae |
0.13 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cordia platythyrsa Baker |
Boraginaceae |
0.10 |
0.5 |
0 |
Pteleopsis hylodendron Mildbr. |
Combretaceae |
0.05 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Corynanthe johimbe
K. Schum. |
Rubiaceae |
0.19 |
1 |
0.33 |
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn |
Dennstaedtiaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0 |
Corynanthe pachyceras
K. Schum. |
Rubiaceae |
0.08 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Pteris acanthoneura Alston |
Adianthaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Costus afer Ker Gawl |
Costaceae |
0.04 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Pterocarpus soyauxii Taub. |
Fabaceae |
0.26 |
1 |
0.33 |
Costus sp. |
Costaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Pterygota macrocarpa K. Schum. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Cremaspora thomsonii Hiern |
Rubiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb. |
Myristicaceae |
0.40 |
1 |
0.33 |
Croton oligandrus Pierre ex Hutch. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.10 |
0.25 |
0 |
Pyrenacantha sylvestris S. Moore |
Iacanaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Ctenitis lanigera (Kuhn.) Tardieu |
Dryopteridaceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Raphia regalis Becc. |
Arecaceae |
0.08 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cucurbita pepo L. |
Cucurbitaceae |
0.02 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Raphia sp. 1 |
Arecaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Cyanthillium stelluliferum (Benth.) H. Rob. |
Asteraceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Raphia sp. 2 |
Arecaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume |
Amaranthaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Raphia sp. 3 |
Arecaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Cylicodiscus gabunensis Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.58 |
1 |
0.33 |
Rauvolfia macrophylla Stapf |
Apocynaceae |
0.25 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf |
Zingiberaceae |
0.04 |
1 |
0.33 |
Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel. |
Apocynaceae |
0.05 |
1 |
0.33 |
Cyphostemma adenopodum (Sprague) Desc. |
Vitaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Renealmia sp. |
Zingiberaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H. J. Lam |
Burseraceae |
0.02 |
0.75 |
0 |
Ricinodendron
heudelotii (Baill.)
Pierre ex Heckel |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.30 |
1 |
0.33 |
Dalbergia hostilis Benth. |
Fabaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Ricinus communis L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Desbordesia glaucescens (Engl.) Tiegh. |
Irvingiaceae |
0.13 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Rinorea dentate
(P. Beauv.) Kuntze |
Violaceae |
0.02 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. |
Fabaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Rinorea keayi Brenan |
Violaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Detarium macrocarpum Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.03 |
0.25 |
0 |
Rourea obliquifoliolata Gilg. |
Connaraceae |
0.19 |
1 |
0.33 |
Dewevrea bilabiata
Micheli |
Fabaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Saccharum officinarum L. |
Poaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Dichostemma glaucescens Pierre |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Santiria trimera (Oliv.) Aubrév. |
Burseraceae |
0.21 |
1 |
0.33 |
Dicranolepis buchholzii Engl. & Gilg |
Thymeleaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Sarcophrynium prionogonium
(K. Schum.) K. Schum. |
Marantaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Dioscorea bulbifera L. |
Dioscoreaceae |
0.05 |
1 |
0.33 |
Scepocarpus trinervis (Hochst.) T. Wells &
A. K. Monro |
Urticaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Dioscorea burkilhana Miège |
Dioscoreaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Schumanniophyton magnificum (K. Schum.) Harms |
Rubiaceae |
0.12 |
1 |
0.33 |
Dioscorea cayenensis subsp. Rotundata (poir.)
J. Miège |
Dioscoreaceae |
0.02 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Scleria secans (L.) Urb. |
Cyperaceae |
0.05 |
1 |
0.33 |
Dioscorea minutiflora
Engl. |
Dioscoreaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Scorodophloeus
zenkeri Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Dioscorea sp. 1 |
Dioscoreaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Senna alata (L.) Roxb. |
Fabaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Dioscorea sp. 2 |
Dioscoreaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Senna hirsuta (L.) HS Irwin & Bameby |
Fabaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Dioscorea sp. 3 |
Dioscoreaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Setaria barbata (Lam.) kunth |
Poaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Diospyros canaliculata
De Wild. |
Ebenaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Setaria megaphylla (Steud.) T. Durand & Schinz |
Poaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0 |
Diospyros crassiflora
Hiern |
Ebenaceae |
0.72 |
1 |
0.33 |
Shirakiopsis elliptica (Hochst.) Esser |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Diospyros Gracilescens Gürke |
Ebenaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Sida rhombifolia L. |
Malvaceae |
0.20 |
1 |
0.33 |
Diospyros suaveolens Gürke |
Ebenaceae |
0.05 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Sloetiopsis usambarensis Engl. |
Moraceae |
0.19 |
1 |
0.33 |
Discoglypremna
caloneura (Pax) Prain |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Smilax anceps Willd. |
Smilacaceae |
0.03 |
1 |
0.33 |
Dracaena arborea
(Willd.) Link |
Draceanaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Solanum anguivi Lam. |
Solanaceae |
0.21 |
1 |
0.33 |
Drypetes capillipes (Pax) Pax & K. Hoffm. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Solanum lycopersicum L. |
Solanaceae |
0.14 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Drypetes gilgiana (Pax)
Pax & K. Hoffm. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Solanum sp. |
Solanaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Drypetes gossweileri
S. Moore |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.33 |
1 |
0.33 |
Solanum torvum Sw. |
Solanaceae |
0.10 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Drypetes sp. 3 |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Spathodea campanulata
P. Beauv. |
Bignoniaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0 |
Duboscia macrocarpa Bocq. |
Malvaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Spermacoce intricans (Hepper) Burkill |
Rubiaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Duboscia viridiflora
(K. Schum.) Mildbr. |
Malvaceae |
0.07 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Spondias dulcis Parkinson |
Anacardiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Duguetia barteri (Benth.) Chatrou |
Annonaceae |
0.09 |
0.25 |
0 |
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl |
Verbenaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Duguetia confinis
(Engl. & Diels) Chatrou |
Annonaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Staudtia kamerunensis Warb. |
Myristicaceae |
0.04 |
0.75 |
0 |
Duguetia staudtii
(Engl. & Diels) Chatrou |
Annonaceae |
0.04 |
0.25 |
0 |
Sterculia oblonga Mast. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. |
Arecaceae |
2.49 |
1 |
0.33 |
Strombosia grandifolia Hook. f. |
Olacaceae |
0.06 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Elaeophorbia drupifera (Thonn.) Stapf |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.08 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Strombosia pustulata
Oliv. |
Olacaceae |
0.05 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Eleusine indica (L.)
Gaertn. |
Poaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Strombosiopsis tetrandra Engl. |
Olacaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0 |
Emilia coccinea (Sims)
G. Don |
Asteraceae |
0.04 |
0.25 |
0 |
Strychnos aculeata Soler. |
Loganiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Entandrophragma candollei Harms |
Meliaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Strychnos boonei De Wild. |
Loganiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague |
Meliaceae |
0.28 |
1 |
0.33 |
Strychnos campicola
Gilg ex Leeuwenb. |
Loganiaceae |
0.07 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Sprague)
Sprague |
Meliaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Strychnos camptoneura Gilg & Busse |
Loganiaceae |
0.05 |
1 |
0.33 |
Eremomastax speciosa (Hochst.) Cufod. |
Acanthaceae |
0.02 |
0.5 |
0 |
Tabernaemontana
crassa Benth. |
Apocynaceae |
0.68 |
1 |
0.33 |
Erythrophleum ivorense
A. Chev. |
Fabaceae |
0.18 |
1 |
0.33 |
Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf |
Apocynaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Euphorbia heterophylla L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Tabernaemontana penduliflora K. Schum. |
Apocynaceae |
0.10 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Euphorbia hirta L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Telfairia sp. |
Cucurbitaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Euphorbia thymifolia L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels |
Combretaceae |
0.48 |
1 |
0.33 |
Ficus asperifolia Miq. |
Moraceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Tessmannia africana Harms |
Fabaceae |
0.05 |
1 |
0.33 |
Ficus bubu Warb. |
Moraceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Tetracera eriantha Oliv. Hutch. |
Dilleniaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Ficus exasperata Vahl |
Moraceae |
0.07 |
1 |
0.33 |
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum. & Thonn.) Taub. |
Fabaceae |
0.14 |
1 |
0.33 |
Ficus mucuso Welw. ex Ficalho |
Moraceae |
0.04 |
0.75 |
0 |
Theobroma cacao L. |
Malvaceae |
0.09 |
1 |
0.33 |
Ficus pseudomangifera Hutch. |
Moraceae |
0.05 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Thomandersia hensii De Wild. & T. Durand |
Acanthaceae |
0.07 |
0.25 |
0 |
Ficus trichopoda Baker |
Moraceae |
0.03 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Thonningia sanguinea Vahl |
Balanophoraceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Funtumia elastica (P. Preuss) Stapf |
Apocynaceae |
0.17 |
1 |
0.33 |
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray |
Asteraceae |
0.16 |
1 |
0.33 |
Garcinia afzelii Engl. |
Clusiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Tragia benthamii Baker |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Garcinia kola Heckel |
Clusiaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Treculia africana Decne. |
Moraceae |
0.05 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Gilbertiodendron
dewevrei (De Wild.) J. Léonard |
Fabaceae |
0.08 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Trema orientale (L.) Blume |
Cannabaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Glyphaea brevis (Spreng.) Monach. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Trichilia rubescens Oliv. |
Meliaceae |
0.06 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Gossypium barbadense L. |
Malvaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Trichoscypha
acuminata Engl. |
Anacardiaceae |
0.10 |
0.5 |
0 |
Gouania longipetala Hemsl. |
Rhamnaceae |
0.16 |
1 |
0.33 |
Trichoscypha oddonii
De Wild. |
Anacardiaceae |
0.20 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Graptophyllum glandulosum Turill |
Acanthaceae |
0.06 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Trilepisium madagascariense DC. |
Moraceae |
0.05 |
0.5 |
0 |
Greenwayodendron suaveolens
(Engl. & Diels) Verdc. |
Annonaceae |
0.55 |
1 |
0.33 |
Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum. |
Malvaceae |
0.08 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Grewia coriaca Mast. |
Malvaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Triumphetta cordifolia
A. Rich. |
Malvaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Guibourtia tessmannii (Harms) J. Léonard |
Fabaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Turraeanthus africanus (Welw. ex. C. DC.) Pellegr. |
Meliaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Delile)
Sch. Bip. ex Walp. |
Asteraceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0 |
Uapaca guineensis Müll. Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0.05 |
1 |
0.33 |
Harungana madagascariensis
Lam. ex Poir. |
Hypericaceae |
0.03 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Urera cordifolia Engl. |
Urticaceae |
0.07 |
0.75 |
0 |
Haumania
danckelmaniana
(J. Braun & K. Schum.) Milne-Redh. |
Marantaceae |
0.90 |
1 |
0.33 |
Urera repens (Wedd.) Rendle |
Urticaceae |
0.10 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Heisteria zimmereri Engl. |
Olacaceae |
0.04 |
0.75 |
0.17 |
Uvariopsis congolana
(De Wild.) R. E. Fr. |
Annonaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Hexalobus crispiflorus
A. Rich. |
Annonaceae |
0.02 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Vernonia doniana DC. |
Asteraceae |
0.01 |
0.5 |
0 |
Hilleria latifolia (Lam.)
H. Walt. |
Phytolaccaceae |
0.04 |
0.5 |
0.17 |
Vitex thyrsiflora Baker |
Lamiaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Holoptelea grandis (Hutch.) Mildbr. |
Ulmaceae |
0.05 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Xanthosoma malfaffa schott |
Araceae |
0.07 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Homalium sp. |
Salicaceae |
0.02 |
0.25 |
0 |
Xylopia quintasii Engl.
& Diels |
Annonaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Hunteria umbellate
(K. Schum.) Hallier f. |
Apocynaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Xylopia hypolampra Mildbr. & Diels |
Annonaceae |
0.06 |
1 |
0.33 |
Hylodendron gabunense Taub. |
Fabaceae |
0.26 |
1 |
0.33 |
Zanthoxylum gilleti
(De Wild.) P. G. Watterman |
Rutaceae |
0.12 |
1 |
0.33 |
Hymenocardia ulmoides Oliv. |
Euphorbiaceae |
0 |
0.25 |
0 |
Zea mays L. |
Poaceae |
0.11 |
0.75 |
0.33 |
Hypselodelphys poggeana (K. Schum.) Milne-Redh. |
Marantaceae |
0.01 |
0.25 |
0 |
Zingiber officinale
Roscoe |
Zingiberaceae |
0.06 |
0.25 |
0 |