The Cult of Achilles in Croatia along the Adriatic Coast in the New Found Troy ()
1. Introduction
At the end of the last century, the news about Troy spread to Croatia, but archaeologists at the time a priori rejected the hypothesis of Mexican Price (Kamm, 1985) . This research was conducted on the region where the aforementioned researcher located Troy, on the Adriatic Coast, between the rivers Neretva and Cetina, with neighboring islands. In addition, the location corresponds to medieval Pagania, mentioned by the Greek emperor Porphyrogenite in the X century (HE, 2022a) . Croat Astrid Vucetic recognized Homer’s islands in the Adriatic Sea in the middle of the last century (Pasini, 1989) . This work does not delve into the actual position of Ilios, although this research is moving towards it. It shows evidence of Achilles’ cult on the Adriatic Coast, near Port of Ploce at the mouth of the Neretva River, where his grave is considered. There is a landscape sanctuary in that area of tens of square kilometers, interwoven with his characters and those close to him. Under mythology, Achilles’ mother, the sea nymph Thetis, is a Nereid, who lived in the Mediterranean Sea in an underwater cave with his father Nereus, together with fifty or more of her sisters. Based on broader research, the focus is on the Vjetrenica cave, which contains drawings from the Stone Age, and the location is on the UNESCO Tentative list (HE, 2022b) . On the hills around, there are several geoglyphs of Nereus and his companion Doris. The land entrance to the cave is east of Achilles’ camp in Zavala near the mouth of the Neretva, and the sea penetrates its unexplored depth. The Argonautica described possible landscapes of the Vjetrenica cave unique in the Mediterranean by the constant blowing of the wind at the entrance and is called Hades cave (Apollonius Rhodius, III Century BC: II, 734-740) . In the bay where the nymph emerges and visits her son Achilles, who established his camp near the western bank of the Neretva in the Gulf of Ploce, is the sea entrance to Vjetrenica (Homer, 1898: XVIII 65-69) . Hypothetically, the Neretva River got its name after Nereus.
Under wider research, the Neretva is the mythical river Helle, named after the Illyrian god Veles. The nearby mountain of the same name (Velez) rises along the river. Throughout history, the Croatian predecessors (Illyrians) in this area have been called Neretva people and Encheleans (Katicic, 1977) . The first was after the Neretva, and the second was perhaps after the Helle. Then Veles, the god of the underworld and water, could be also the root of the hydronym Hellespont (Vellespont) into which the river flows. The double Greek letter (l) is preserved in the Croatian bay’s name, Pellesac (Peljesac). The Pelleski Bay is the deepest Adriatic one (65 km) and stretches along the saber-like peninsula Pellesac. Its name also has a linguistic connection with the god Veles, who is somewhere recorded as Heles (Grubisic, 1979) . Therefore, the meaning of the bay is the Veles Sea or Vellespont (Hellespont). The shallow marshy sea filled the Neretva delta in ancient times, and the vessel sailed only the riverbeds towards the deep and open sea. Today, it is an ameliorated area. However, there is archaeological evidence in Lake Desilo that even in Roman times, the mouth was a shallow sea (University of Oslo, 2008) . In Greek, the word Pontos is both sea and swamp. Therefore, Homer wrote Odysseus sailed the Hellespont current and sailed into the sea. These verses were a stumbling block among philosophers and Homerologists. The question was how one could sail the sea and sail into the sea, and many have written about it (Strabo, 63/64 BC-24 AD: 1.7.1) . In addition, this is a broader theme within the evidence for Troy in Ljubuski, about 16 kilometers north.
Here, the article highlights some details related to Achilles and his landscape shrine. The Apology of Socrates introduced the concept of heroes, those who persist beyond death (Plato, 429-347) . The hero’s grave and shrine are the principal features of the cult. However, there are exceptions with Achilles, because his cult existed in many places. It is not always related to his grave, but it evokes the realm of the dead and the hero’s afterlife role. Some researchers point out that in Greece existed several places with a cult of Achilles. It could be associated with the spreading of the Iliad when numerous places changed names competing to grant themselves greater fame, and Strabo called them corrupted toponyms. In effect, Achilles’ tomb is unknown to this day, although Sigeum was designated a burial mound for this purpose (Dictys Cretensis, 1996: Book 4.15) . It is difficult to say that there was any cult (Hooker, 1996) . Here is assumed that the old megalithic city of Stolac is the original Sigeum, although dating is controversial. Both towns have the same etymology, referring to the chief place or seat. Under Greek lore, Sigeum was built with Trojan stones destroying all walls to fundaments (Strabo, 63/64 BC-24 AD: 13.1.38) . The old megalithic town of Stolac, later called Daorson (43˚06'15"N, 17˚55'37"E) is about 40 km northwest of Achilles’ camp, between Ljubuski and Dubrovnik. There is a legend in Dubrovnik about the city built with Trojan stones. To summarize the chapter, Troy is there where Achilles’ barrow is, and vice versa. Here is presented material evidence, which confirms the hypothesis of the Bronze Age cult of Achilles on the Croatian Adriatic coast showing some of the oldest Greek inscriptions.
2. Thetis’ Monument to Achilles
Roman literature mentions the port of the Achaeans, as well as an island with Achilles’ tomb in front of a peninsula shaped like a saber (Pliny the Elder, 23/79 AD) . It seems the description shows the peninsula Peljesac, which looks like a saber and does not exist a similar one in the Mediterranean. According to Pliny the Elder, the peninsula is 125 Roman miles away (about 185 km). However, the peak of the peninsula Pellesac is about 18.5 km from the coast or ten times less. The measurement could be wrong, written, or transcribed if the translation is correct. Pliny called Achilles’ place, Leuce (light in Latin), and Macaron from Greek Makaron. Today, in front of the Achille cape, is the island of Hvar or Pharos, a name that refers to light or lighthouse. Synonyms for Leuce are lumen and Lumenos. Under broader research, Pharos is the Trojan island Lemnos and it could be from Latin Lumenos. Then, Macaron is a certain name after Mount Macar (Makar), mentioned by Homer (1898: XXIV 544) . Under research, the toponym corresponds to Mount Biokovo with Achilles’ shrine and barrow. About 28 km to the west, on that mountain, is the old village of Makar and the coastal town of Makarska. Argonauts sail along Mount Makar, where Hercule was forgotten (Apollonius Rhodius, III Century BC: I, 1110-1115) . According to many ancient sources, the Argonauts sailed the river in Illyria and the Adriatic Sea (Encyclopedia.com, 2018) . Aeneas also went to Italy from the Adriatic Coast (Strabo, 63/64 BC-24 AD: 13.1.53) . The writer writes according to tradition and unconsciously describes the port of Ploce, in front of which is the island of Lemnos (Hvar). However, the Latin word insula can be translated as island concerning the island, but also as a separate place concerning the Achilles’ tumulus, which is also the meaning; therefore, some assume that the tomb is on the island. However, it is not on the island but in a lofty place in front of the island. This is with the previous in harmony and the grave on the Sigeum cape.
Furthermore, outside the Iliad, Achilles’ death is recorded in the Temple of Apollo Thymbraios, where he fell into a trap devised by Andromache with Paris (Dares the Phrygian, 1996) . The Bronze Age fortress of Zuzelj with walls of the inscription Ilios is in this region could be Dardanus’ Thymbra. Under the Greek lore, the city is near the confluence of Simois (Studencica) and Scamander (Trebizat) (Strabo, 63/64 BC-24 AD: 13.1.35) Thymbra, the city of Dardanus, is older than Troy, and it is Timber. The old port of Drijeva on the Neretva River has also the same meaning in Croatia, timber (drvo) (HE, 2022c) . At present, Gabela appeared in the second half of the XV century. Mexican Price recognized it as Ilios because he thought the city was a port (Price, 1984) . In the Iliad, several verses defined the city of Ilios deeper in the mainland. According to our broader research, the Achaeans landed on the plain before Scamander in that place. As we know, the question of Troy is still wobbly and based on assumptions of Hisarlik without any evidence and it is so for other Homer’s cities around there. This (partially) and broader research show coherent and undeniable material evidence, which will be peer reviewed and published during this year 2024. Therefore, we know exact Homer’s geography. Then, distinguishing between the Port of Thymbra and the Temple of Thymbra is necessary because the temple is at the peak of Zuzelj, 11 km from the port. The hill west in front of the harbor is called Greda, which is also meaning timber. Where Achilles was killed depends on book records because there are other written sources alongside Homer. Therefore, Homerologists often confound the Temple of Apollo near the Scaean Gate with the Temple of Apollo Thymbraios. However, those are two temples. If Achilles was killed in the Temple of Apollo Thymbraios, then it is probable that his death was in Thymbra. The Scaean temple is consecrated to the Trojan patron, Apollo Smintheus (mouse) (Homer, 1898: I, 35-40) . The megalithic foundations on the hypothetical Trojan Buturovica Hill shape a giant mouse with Apollo’s head and are still visible. The hill’s name corresponds to the Trojan toponym Buthrotum (Virgil, 29/19 BC) . Thymbra was part of the Trojan space with its fortifications (Thurston, 1898) . Thymbra is closer to the Achaean ships than Ilios, as revealed by Homer too (Homer, 1898: X 430) . These verses are the one of evidence about Troy city in coastal detachment.
Who killed Achilles is also questionable, although all ancient sources, his death attributed to Paris. However, under Dyctus Cretensis, Diomedes and Odysseus killed those prominent among worriers, to keep glory to the king and themselves. Also, the two watched over Achilles so that he would not betray the Achaeans for the sake of his probable marriage to Trojan princess Polyxena. It was for agreeing on the marriage that he was summoned to the temple where he was killed. Diomedes, Odysseus and Ajax found Achilles’ body, but Ajax was also found murdered after an altercation with Odysseus (Dictys Cretensis, 1996: Book 4.11) . Nevertheless, it is only an assumption based on ancient writing. Further, I located possible Thymbra town according to early descriptions of the landscape and megalithic unresearched remains east and south of the Temple. Also, I recognized the Temple of Apollo Thymbraios due to its position and the surrounding geoglyphs of Apollo on Zuzelj Hill. Then, at 20 km south, there is another Zuzelj Hill in the landscape of Achilles’ sanctuary. Perhaps the second toponym got a name in memory of Achilles’ death. Therefore, we can determine Achilles’ death at the Thymbraean Gate, not the Scaean, where Achilles killed Hector.
Under Greek lore, Thetis buried her son in a double-eared golden urn, held games, and erected a monument in his honor (Homer, 1919: XXIV 72-79) . By the way, double-eared pottery is a feature of Illyrian art too. Here are shown two pictures of two hilly pillars, one above the other, with which the sea nymph glorified her son (Figure 1, Figure 2). The two adjacent peaks on the hill are outlined by kilometric scratching rocks. The first depicts Achilles in his armor, which his mother brought to him as a gift from Hephaestus (Homer, 1898: XIX 10-15) . On his shoulder is his princess Deidamia with him. Above the monument and south of the foot of the second pillar, are two shaped rocks as figures of Thetis’ father Nereus, and mother Oceanid Doris (Figure 1) (shown in both images). They cover an area of about 1 km2. Then, Myrmidon Achilles stands on
![]()
Figure 1. Achilles’ Family Pillar I, Achilles, Thetis and Peleus, Nereus and Doris, Google Earth 2017 Cam 4.5 km, 43˚05'55"N, 17˚22'35"E.
![]()
Figure 2. Family Pillar II, Achilles and Patroclus, Aeacus and Endeis, Nereus and Doris, Google Earth 2017 Cam 4.5 km.
his mother Thetis’ head, beneath which is his father Peleus’ head. Achilles’ height is about 2.618 km (phi2) from his base to head top. Together Thetis and Peleus, shaped like a penguin or dolphin, are 2 km long. The common height of the first column is about 4.618 km, and multiplied by phi (1.618) gives the height of the second Achilles column, or about 7.472 km (from the foot to the headpiece top). Therefore, sacred geometrical mathematical ratios exclude coincidence or pareidolia of rocks. The scientific greatness of the Bronze Age civilizations is also reflected in that example. Further, on the second pillar are Achilles and Patroclus jointly (Figure 2). Patroclus is lower and his feet are raised to keep his head standing next to Achilles’. Peleus’ son looks at the sea (south) and Menoetius’ one watches over the mountains (north). It reminds the god Janus in Roman mythology. Each has its headpiece, recognized in Greek iconography. Above them is a new Achilles’ head. The tip of his cap shows his grandfather Aeacus beside grandmother Endeis. For first time, we have the original Achilles’ face. Along the west side of the hill are other Achaean heroes (Antilochus, Ajax) (Strabo, 63/64 BC-24 AD: 13.1.32) . Realizing this archaic art, developing the image, more characters on Achilles’ pillars are visible. However, a comprehensive view of Google Earth is accessible from 2 to 100 km above the ground. Geoglyphs are composed of other images too observed at lower altitudes (1 to 10 km). At heights lower than 500 m, the hills look natural. The landscape monuments are on the extreme eastern Biokovo chain at the top of Rilic Hill, from Zaostrog to Ploce (15 km). Drawings scratched onto rocks are highlighted along the southern hillside and over the top. The highest altitude of the first pillar is the peak of Saint Elijah (773 M), while the second is almost the same, Viter (770 M), above Zaostrog. Billow, the second Achilles’ column, is several figures, smaller and larger, along the top of St. Pascal and the medieval church on the hill.
3. Achilles Inscription
Furthermore, in the first Achilles column that stretches along the top of St. Elijah, on Thetis’ side, on Peleus’ shoulder, is the Achilieio (Αχιλιειο) inscription (Figure 3). This type of writing may be called pictographic Greek, because the letters take on certain human movements, which shows the early alphabet. The eight letters inscription of Αχίλιειο (Achilieio) is Achilles’ name (Αχιλλέας). Until now, our knowledge of the Greek alphabet had been established at its earliest in the10th century BC (Britannica Encyclopaedia, 2024) . Therefore, that would be the oldest possible dating of the sanctuary. However, some researchers claim
![]()
Figure 3. Inscription Achilles (Αχιλιειο), Google Earth 20114 Cam 260 m, 43˚05'35"N, 17˚24'39"E.
it is older (12-11century BC) about three hundred years than the first inscriptions (Miller, 1994) . Today, there is disagreement among linguists about the origin and age of the Greek alphabet. The Greeks perhaps took over the alphabet after the fall of Troy, where they settled there. The length of the Αχιλιειο inscription is about 262 M (proportional phi2). Under sacred geometry (phi ratios), the position is related to one of the surrounding tumuli and is certain Achilles’ grave. It corresponds to the description in the Iliad (Homer, 1898: XXIII 164) . Nereus stands next to the barrow, holding a glass with trident fingers. Achilles, with long hair, a shield, and a sword, is positioned in front of the mound. Around, the outlines of Achilles and Patroclus suggest their joint tomb (Homer, 1898: XXIII 243-248) . It is necessary to protect the tumulus at this level of research. However, only archaeological excavations can provide a reliable conclusion. Several similar inscriptions are noticeable, encircling the First Pilar monument, but they are unclear. Nevertheless, the word on Achilles’ feet may be compared with the shown one. The etymology of Achilles is not comprehensible and leaves multiple meanings. Some researchers assumed the name is a loanword. In Croatian, Achilles is Akil, and reading it backward reveals the toponym Lika, referencing the Croatian province. Lika derives from the Greek term for wolf (Likos), akin to Homer’s Lycia and its association with the worshipping of Zeus Lycaean (Wolf). Therefore, the name Achilles may refer to a wolf. His first name was Ligyron, which can also be derived from Likos (wolf) or Likon (of wolf). His teacher, centaur Chiron, renamed him Achilles (Apollodorus, n.d.) . In mythology, a giant wolf appears in connection with Peleus, who takes revenge on him (CL, 2022) . Hypothetically, Aeacus’ descendant named his son in response to the curse. In conclusion of this chapter, we can say Geoglyphic drawings and inscriptions represent a unique landscape art.
4. Other Contents of the Shrine of Achilles
Furthermore, Price located Achilles’ grave near the port of Ploce and pointed to two stone barrows, but no one researched them (except perhaps robbers). We are uncertain about his specific tumuli but, two ones along the seashore represent the figures of Achilles and Patroclus (Figure 4). The distance from Achilles to his First Column is about 1.618 km or phi (from head to head). Tumuli are the potential graves of Achilles and Patroclus, but this research is more inclined to the former assumption. Then, based on personal observation, two coastal piles seem empty, and only a monument to two friends. They differ from others in the area because they lack a stone wreath like at others’ tumuli around, erected in this area from the Eneolithic to the Middle Ages. New characters of the same Myrmidons are near two coastal stone piles. They are northwest at about 162 M (proportional phi) from Achilles’ forehead to Achilles’ forehead. Under them is an unclear image of Peleus with his father Aeacus (Figure 5). Measurements in the ancient shrine show the sacred geometric arrangement of points in space and coincidence in creation needs to be eliminated.
![]()
Figure 4. Stone Piles of Achilles and Patroclus, Google Earth 2022 Cam 115 m.
![]()
Figure 5. Monument to Myrmidons, Google Earth 2022 Cam 65 m, 43˚05'02"N, 17˚21'57"E.
About 260 M north of the First Pillar, in front of Achilles, there are several inscriptions and geoglyphs. A stylized figure of Achilles with the stylized word Αχιλιειο (Achilieio) is highlighted in the next image (Figure 6). The drawing’s length is about 38 M. Rotating the image to the right by 90 degrees reveals Achilles with his characteristic headpiece, adorned with two heads (Nereus and Thetis) (Figure 7). Nereus looks to the west, and Thetis to the east. We encounter a unique artistic direction where images and letters are intertwined into unique lines, forming a work that is both a picture and a word. The stylized shape of the letters leaves the possibility of complex expression at different angles of view. This art is in the spirit of metamorphose inherent in the depicted water deities. Several related inscriptions have been found on the hypothetical Trojan site. To recognize them, one does not always need to be a skillful paleographer. Above the previous inscription is a stylized Troy inscription or Troia (Xpoya) easier to read, as shown in the next picture (Figure 8).
![]()
Figure 6. Stylized Word Αχιλιειο (Achilieio), Google Earth 2022 Cam 40 m, 43˚06'3.25"N, 17˚23'10.55"E.
![]()
Figure 7. Nereus and Thetis, Google Earth 2022 Cam 25 m.
![]()
Figure 8. Inscription Troy (Xpoya), Google Earth 2022 Cam 14 m, 43˚6'02.93"N, 17˚23'09.78"E.
It seems, the highlighted letters, written in some form of alternating zigzag pattern, represent the hairstyle on Thetis’ head, as seen from a different angle and in a wider scene. In the early stage, the Phoenician and Old Greek writing style was from right to left and had a zigzag pattern (OED, 1783) . The word Xpoya (Troia) is legible to all because these Greek letters are close to Latin, and the transliteration is Troy. The inscription size is about 12/4 M. Several surrounding rocks are adapted to figures of Achilles’ family. Sometimes, we observe multi-expressive content depending on the viewing angle. Furthermore, it is difficult to confirm with certainty that the recorded inscriptions belong to the Bronze Age. Nevertheless, they are a part of the monument, associated with Achilles’ death and destruction of Troy in that period. Therefore, it suffices to rely on the inscriptions in this article to locate Troy, assuming that Achilles’ grave is part of the shown landscape sanctuary.
Hypothetically, mythologies take on the contours of reality. Thetis’ art implies that ancient gods handle geoglyphs, both here and in a wider territory. In the next image, Hephaestus stands in front of the first Achilles Pillar (Figure 9). There are a particular relationship between Thetis and the volcano god in mythology (Homer, 1898: XVIII 394-400) . The scene tells who could be the genuine master of everything in the environment. The first artist, Hephaestus, was Thetis’ assumed engineer, and accomplished the feat presented in this article, leaving his trace inscription. In the image, we notice Hephaestus with an axe over his shoulder and an anvil in front of his face, which are his characteristics in Greek iconography. The range of the drawing is about 100 m. Hephaestus’ trace shows the stylized word Xpoya (Troy). The first letter X (tau) is his image. Thus, it is read from right to left, suggesting an earlier period of creation. Homer in Greek writes Tpoia, so the inscription Troy is in Ancient Greek when the Greek T is written X like the Phoenician Tav, and letter I corresponds to the ancient Greek Y. Further, it is about 3650 M from Hephaestus’ forehead to Achilles’ forehead on the First Pillar. The number, converted into days, implies the ten-year duration
![]()
Figure 9. Hephaestus’ Trojan Trace, Google Earth 2017 Cam 330 m, 47˚06'48"N, 17˚21'30"E.
of the Trojan War. Until now, Achilles’ monument was an unseen archaic art (Arrian of Nicodemia, c. AD 130) . Odyssey has mentioned in the Odyssus that Achilles’ tomb is visible from afar from the open sea, which establishes the Adriatic location (Homer, 1919: XXIV 80-83) .
5. Method
The area of this research is landscape archaeology based on Google Earth satellite images. It was conducted in the aforementioned Adriatic coastal area, which includes the present-day Croatian municipalities of Ploce and Gradac. To replicate the outcome mentioned in this article, one must use Google Pro to analyze the images and inscriptions from the corresponding satellite record of that year. Geoglyphs are visible at certain heights and are composed of smaller figures on several levels. The viewing height is different for each drawing and inscription. The inscriptions are available at lower altitudes between ten and several hundred meters, while the geoglyph drawings are seen from several kilometers. Geographical coordinates alone are insufficient for observation; the angle of view and defined height are crucial. No reliable conclusion can be drawn from the ground using the naked eye. While standing on the hills or walking around, you will remark nothing. However, if you know what you saw on the satellite images, you can notice specific outlines. You need to examine a defined site at a specific height, angle, and on a particular Google image. Besides the skill of recognizing geoglyphs, conclusions need to be drawn using Homer’s works and other classical sources. The transcription of the original Ancient Greek inscriptions is written in the Greek alphabet. Then, the text is transliterated into the corresponding Latin alphabet. For example, Αχιλιειο is Achilieio or Achilles, and Χρογα is Troia, or Troy. Above all, paleographic skills are required. The method is complex but understandable and applicable to everyone in the field.
6. Conclusion
It is intriguing to say who are the authors of Achilles’ Landscape Sanctuary. The literature contains information about the Illyrians creating drawings by scratching stones, which led to transforming entire hills. Any other European nation is known in that regard. However, geoglyphs have not been mentioned by anyone thus far. Who really the Illyrians were, science has not answered, but they lived there. Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela mentioned the Illyrians in the genuine sense (proprie dicti) as an indigenous population on the Croatian Adriatic coast. Under genetic research, approximately 75% of the population in Herzegovina and Dalmatia (area of research) has indigenous haplogroup I2 and carries genes that are older than 30 thousand years. Hence, the Croatian ancestors might have been witnesses or even creators of the geoglyphs. They used the technique of scratching, stacking stones, and digging to create drawings. Some researchers suppose Illyrians used some chemicals to keep stones looking white for thousands of years. They knew the mathematics of faces and aligned their skills with sacred geometry. The phi ratios relations found in the arrangement of Achilles’ sanctuary and the layout of other Trojan points support such an assumption. We can recall Michelangelo used the proportions of faces in his drawings. His approach presents a potential explanation for how the ancient artists crafted monumental faces in the stone relief, even though they could not view them from above because of their size. The dating of the geoglyphs along the Adriatic coast can be determined in the period between the end of the 12th century BC, and the opening of the Archaic Greek era of the 8th century BC. Thus, authors in the Dark Age of Greece created traces of the Trojan War. Then, in the archaic period, the alphabet was developed and the first literary works appeared, including the Iliad. If the geoglyphs were made during that period, or later in the classical era, they would likely be documented by ancient authors. Under broader research, in the wider area, exist many geoglyphs and inscriptions related to Troy. This research rejects the historical non-recognition of the Trojan War. The aerial view of Achilles’ sanctuary reveals conclusive scenes. It supports the hypothesis of Achilles’ cult in Croatia, along the Adriatic coast. Determining his barrow means locating Troy on the Adriatic coast and hinterland. The classical archaeology needs to give an affirmative answer.
Acknowledgements
I thank the late Fra Silvije Grubisic because of his archaeological mission among the Croats. I thank the late Mexican Salinas Price, who situated Troy in Croatia, and the late Croatian Astrid Vucetic, who placed the Odyssey in the Adriatic Sea. Above all, I thank Providence for guiding me during my research.
Croatian Words in English
Bacina—Baćina
Elijah—Ilija
Grubisic—Grubišić
Korcula—Korčula
Lukoc—Lukoč
Ljubuski—Ljubuški
Pascal—Paškal
Pelleski—Pelješki
Peracko—Peračko
Ploce—Ploče
Rilic—Rilić
Studencica—Studenčica
Trebizat—Trebižat
Vucetic—Vučetić
Zuzelj—Žuželj