Research on a Complete Set of Sports Stadium Projects Assisted by China and Africa ()
1. Introduction
After the Beijing Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) was held in September 2018, the concept of a China-Africa community with a shared future and the proposal of eight major initiatives ushered in a new era of exchanges and cooperation between China and Africa [1]. As an important part of China’s aid to Africa [2], stadiums built by China have become an effective catalyst for strengthening bilateral relations between China and recipient countries. According to incomplete statistics, China has assisted in building more than 80 large-scale stadiums in Africa, with a total seating capacity of about 3 million [3]. In April 1986, former IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch made a special trip to China to present the Olympic Cup, the highest honor of the IOC, to the Chinese Olympic Committee in recognition of the Chinese government’s contribution to the sports construction of the third world countries. At that time, he said, “The best stadiums built in China are not in China, but in Africa.” Therefore, it is of great theoretical and practical significance to study the construction of stadiums and gymnasiums in African countries assisted by China.
2. Basic Information
According to incomplete statistics, China has assisted in the construction of more than 80 stadiums in Africa, with a total capacity of about 3 million spectators. The stadiums China has built in Africa are unmatched by other countries in terms of scale, duration and difficulty [3]. After the Beijing Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) was held in September 2018, the concept of “China-Africa Community with a shared future” and the proposal of eight major initiatives ushered in a new era of exchanges and cooperation between China and Africa [1]. As an important part of China’s aid to Africa [2], stadiums built by China have become an effective catalyst for strengthening bilateral relations between China and recipient countries. China since the 1960 s to Tanzania body funded by education field, the Chinese built stadiums in Africa has experienced 60 years of development, during the course of the decades of aid also summarizes a large number of valuable experience, has realized the transition from free aid to the diversified cooperation, promoted China to African countries by the change of the blood transfusion to hematopoietic, The promotion from “teaching people to fish” to “teaching people to fish” has effectively promoted the ability of the recipient countries to improve self-reliance.
In general, the construction of stadiums and gymnasiums assisted by China in Africa went through three stages: 1) the period of free aid from 1950 to 1978; 2) the period of free aid turning to cooperation from 1978 to 1999. 3) Period of comprehensive cooperation from 2000 to 2020 [4].
2.1. Period of Free Aid (1950-1978) and Social Background
At the beginning of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, its international status was low. By the mid-1950s, 30 independent states had emerged in Asia and Africa. Newly independent countries are faced with the need to strive for democratic liberation and space for national development, and China and African countries have the motivation to take the initiative to unite in response to external pressure. Despite its own poor economic conditions, China has withstood enormous difficulties and pressure to provide assistance to newly independent countries and economically poor countries in Africa. Sports buildings have become an important part of the construction projects. However, the newly independent and post-independent African countries are facing serious economic difficulties, and their greatest needs are large quantities of emergency subsistence and production supplies, production facilities and equipment, and economic and technical assistance. Therefore, at present, The main forms of China’s aid to Africa are to send sports coaches, help build stadiums, provide materials and funds, send technical experts, build factories and provide complete sets of production facilities and equipment [5]. Despite the important role sport plays in social and economic development, it is not the first choice of newly independent and economically poor countries in Africa. At this stage, China built few stadiums in Africa and the project had little influence.
Sports resources present a one-way flow from China to recipient countries, emphasizing the gratuitous nature of aid and lacking two-way interaction between China and recipient countries.
The founding of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949 ended the rule of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucrat-capitalism in China. From then on, the Chinese people became masters of their own country and society and embarked on the grand cause of socialist revolution and construction. However, new China was faced with a severe cold War environment, and its independence and security were under long-term external threats. In order to adapt to the GLOBAL hegemony between the United States and the Soviet Union and to give China a chance to change and survive, MAO Zedong put forward the theory of three worlds: The first world is the world of the two superpowers; The second world is the world of most western capitalist countries; The third world is the world of Asian, African and Latin American countries. We should oppose the hegemony of the first world, strive for the cooperation of the second world, strengthen relations with the third world and support the cause and development of the third world. Our diplomatic position is that we are independent and self-reliant. No country can interfere in China’s internal affairs, nor will we interfere in others’ internal affairs. In order to win the true independence of national sovereignty and the support of the international community, expanding living space is the primary task of national diplomacy. In the 1950s, the African national independence movement was at an unprecedented high, and African countries declared their independence one after another. In 1960, known as the “Year of African Independence”, 17 countries declared their independence throughout the year. Emerging African countries were all faced with the need to strive for national development space and democratic liberation. Therefore, China and emerging African countries have an incentive to unite together to cope with external pressures. The newly independent and post-independent African countries have extremely difficult economy, relatively backward infrastructure and fewer sports facilities. It is a dream for newly independent African countries to have their own large-scale modern sports stadiums. Sports as a transcend national boundaries and cultural differences between the common language of human beings, and the friendly exchanges between the nation’s special messengers, and strengthen the country an important means of diplomacy, therefore, sports is a special kind of carrier of foreign, and to hold or participate in large-scale sports events is one of the best sports exchange walked out of the way. There are many African countries that became independent after 1956. In order to seek help from the third world, China-Africa relations should be comprehensively broken through and the alliance of peaceful and friendly Third world countries should be established.
2.2. Grant Aid Turned to a Cooperative Period (1978-1999) and Social Background
In 1978 at the beginning of reform and opening up to the 21st century, in the few decades, Africa requires free aid construction of sports venues a surge in the number of countries, and even appeared the phenomenon of comparison, between these countries and our country at the time because of the economic reform and opening up the deepening of the economic system and mechanism of the transformation, the scale of China’s foreign aid shrunk to a certain extent, there are even a few years, some recipient countries thought that they were abandoned by China, so several African countries broke off diplomatic relations with China. Therefore, China’s diplomatic strategy towards Africa is mainly reflected in the adaptation of aid to Africa to the actual situation of China’s reform and opening up. At this stage, the reform and opening up at home and the change of the international situation promoted the transition of China-Africa sports aid from “free aid to cooperation”. In the 1980s, the world colonial system faced the final collapse and disintegration. The independence of African countries had been basically completed, and the international environment faced by Both China and African countries had greatly improved. The bilateral task of national development has changed from national sports to economic and social development. China’s aid to non-sports should take into account the requirements of aid, input and output. By 1983, China had put forward the Four Principles of Economic and Technological Cooperation with Africa, which called for “equality and mutual benefit, practical results, diversified forms and common development” in its relations with the third world countries. According to the requirements of the four Principles, China’s sports aid to Africa is no longer free at the request of recipient countries, but based on the reality of China, it is no longer free to build large-scale complete set of sports projects, but to mutually beneficial, effective and diversified adjustment. At this stage, China’s assistance to Africa African stadiums number, large scale and influence, winding process and sports resources by China to recipient one-way flow into a two-way flow, will be given free of charge, non-profit, into a favorable cooperation, paid the way as the leading factor, combining sports foreign aid and investment, trade [6].
Since the 1980s, peace and development have become two major themes in the world, and the international environment and historical tasks facing China and African countries have undergone remarkable changes. At the third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee held in 1978, the party put forward a proposal to “shift the focus of the party’s work to socialist modernization,” which led to the major decision of reform and opening up to focus on economic development. New China entered a new stage of comprehensive reform and opening up and socialist modernization. By 1983, China had put forward the four principles of “equality and mutual benefit, practical results, various forms and common development” in its relations with the third world countries. Since reform and opening-up, China-Africa relations have entered a new stage of stable, sound and all-round development. Mutually beneficial cooperation and common development have become the new trend of China-Africa relations. A sharp drop in the proportion of China’s economic aid to Africa, sports aid is no longer entirely upon request of the recipient countries completely gratuitous aid, but starting from the reality of China, should take the input and output, aid request, to mutual benefit, diversity, common improve adjustment, autonomy and dedication have a corresponding increase in African countries, The two sides have turned to mutually beneficial and win-win cooperation with China through China’s unilateral grant assistance. Along with the development of the socialist market economy, the change of the diversity in China for the aid, and continuously explore new aid mode and management mode, combining foreign aid and investment, trade, aid and foreign aid money more diversified, push forward the government discount interest loans [7], this economic complementary cooperation mode provides a huge space, It has promoted the entry of Chinese enterprises into Africa, brought brand-new development to the political and economic relations between China and Africa, promoted the economic and social development and poverty reduction in Africa, aroused the world’s attention to Africa, and promoted the friendly development and economic cooperation between China and Africa.
2.3. Period of Comprehensive Cooperation (2000-2020) and Social Background
The establishment of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation in 2000 has deeply promoted the international cooperation between China and Africa in the fields of economy, culture and politics. In 2006, the Forum was upgraded to the “Beijing Summit”, during which the areas of China-Africa cooperation were further identified as education, science and technology, culture, health, sports and tourism. The China-Africa Development Fund was launched on June 26, 2007, and the General Administration of Sport of China participated in assisting African countries to carry out diversified cooperation in sports and health, sports facilities construction and maintenance personnel training. Chinese sports events invested in Africa and cooperated in the construction and investment of stadiums in Africa Cup host countries. In 2015, at the Johannesburg Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), China-Africa cooperative relations were further expanded and deepened, and the upgrading of the comprehensive Strategic and cooperative partnership marked a new historical period of China-Africa cooperation. At the same time, in response to the needs of African countries for endogenous self-development, China has made full use of both domestic and international markets and government and private resources to vigorously promote the “going global” development of domestic enterprises. At this stage, Chinese African stadiums has expanded further, the present sports resources between China and the recipient two-way flow, China-Africa sports exchange on mutual benefit and cooperation diversity characteristics (China, in the form of gift giving, or provide low-interest loans, or to build, together with the host country or other cooperation mode).Stadiums used for the Africa Cup of Nations recently held in Angola in 2008, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea (jointly) in 2012, South Africa in 2013, Equatorial Guinea in 2015 and Gabon in 2017 were all built with Chinese assistance. In particular, Gabon, the host of the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations, has 16 teams competing in four stadiums, three of which were built by China.
In the 21st century, economic globalization is the general trend of world economic development, and China and Africa are also embracing a new development trend. The launch of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation in 2000 provided new ideas and guidelines for China-Africa sports cooperation, and deepened cooperation in agriculture, manufacturing, finance and service industries. In 2006, the Forum was upgraded to the Beijing Summit, further strengthening cooperation in education, science and technology, culture, health and sports, tourism and other fields. Since the establishment of FOCAC, China and African countries have cooperated and supported each other politically and economically, and clearly defined cultural and people-to-people exchanges. Sports, as a sub-part of culture, also plays a role in China-Africa exchanges. In 2012, the content of sports industry was added. On the international stage, China and Africa jointly defend their interests. At the same time, China supports African countries to receive more attention from the international community and solve development problems, and supports African countries to have greater representation in the Security Council.
3. The Bilateral Benefits
In the early years of New China, faced with the harsh international political environment, emerging African countries also had the need to strive for national development space and democratic liberation, so China and Africa had the motivation to take the initiative to unite to deal with the harsh international environment.
Through its own reform and development and the strong support of African countries, China has lifted itself out of the harsh international environment and continuously enhanced its international status. In November 1963, the Chinese sports delegation participated in the emerging forces Games held in Jakarta. Eight African countries (Guinea, Nigeria, the League of Arab States, Mali, Somalia, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria) also participated in the games through friendly exchanges with these countries athletes in the game, embodies China’s hospitality. It was the first time after the founding of the People’s Republic of China participated in international sports competitions in an official and comprehensive way. The Chinese delegation won the most gold MEDALS and MEDALS, demonstrating the talent of Chinese athletes. On August 2, 1973, the first Asian, African and Latin American TableTennis Games were held in China. A total of 86 countries attended the games, including 10 African countries. Through several opportunities to participate in large-scale competitions, China gradually entered the international community. With the increase of sports exchanges between China and Asian, African and Latin American countries, especially African countries, new China’s sports diplomacy, as a messenger of peace and a bridge of friendship, has played an important role in enhancing exchanges and unity with members of the socialist camp and promoting cooperation between countries. Chinese sports began to turn from closed to open, and re-opened its relationship with international sports organizations. In many international sports organizations have made the decision to restore China’s legal seat to promote, Chinese sports in the surging world sports scene again.
After the 1960s, most African countries moved towards independence. African people active and lively, has the unique physical structure and tissue composition, make them have very outstanding athletic ability and interest in sports show strong, but because of long been influenced by western colonial, mostly black with white didn’t have a chance to take part in sports activities, more not for sports equipment and venues. After the independence of African economic condition is very bad, the infrastructure is relatively backward, lack of sports facilities is more, so for the African people have a strong interest in sport stadium is a gift and, so most African leaders also puts forward some requests to visit China, including the construction of sports venues. China-financed stadium in local is the biggest, most advanced, part of a region or even the best sporting venues, the venues not only embodies the Chinese technology level, to promote the friendly exchanges and mutual understanding between the people, and through the assistance to Africa stadium projects to provide a lot of jobs for local people, To improve the income level and living conditions of local residents, and to cultivate a large number of technical workers and local engineers, the stadium built for the local place of undertakings of physical culture and sports to provide quality and even Africa, set up training center [8], cultivate sports talents, help recipient countries successfully held the African cup of nations, such as sports, powerfully impelled the African countries the development of undertakings of physical culture and sports.
4. Analysis of Successful Cases of Stadiums and Gymnasiums Built by China in Africa
4.1. Olympic Stadium in Abidjan, Ivory Coast
It took six years from the signing of the exchange of documents to the smooth handover of the Olympic Stadium project. Built by Beijing Construction Engineering Group and started construction on December 22, 2016, Abidjan Olympic Stadium is located in The City of Anyama, Abidjan Autonomous Region, the economic capital of Cote d’Ivoire. It is a class A large stadium with a total construction area of 61,250 square meters and 500 VIP seats and 100 VIP seats for media and athletes. Provide standard eight athletics, football and rugby field, track and field, soccer, rugby international standards [9], can be in the competition of various national and international federation is one of the highest level of modernization in Africa comprehensive stadium, also known as the “bird’s nest” in Africa, the project is the largest foreign aid in the Chinese government after the tanzania-zambia railway project, The opening ceremony will be held on 3 October 2020. Abidjan Olympic stadium has completed true houphouet-boigny President generations such as ivory coast leader and tens of millions of people wish, Abidjan, the Olympic stadium built for the local people to provide a large number of employment opportunities, improve their income level and living conditions, improve the physical infrastructure, rich people’s sports culture, In addition, the Olympic Stadium in Abidjan will host the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations football tournament and other events to promote the development of sports in Cote d’Ivoire (Figure 1).
4.2. Gabon Friendship Stadium
The China-Canada Friendship Stadium is located in Angunjie district in the north of Libreville. It was built by Shanghai Construction Engineering Group. Construction started on January 23, 2010 and completed on November 27, 2011, with a total construction area of about 34,000 square meters. The construction includes a 40,000 seat stadium (including ordinary seats, the presidential box, VIP seats and disabled seats).It is equipped with a natural lawn football field and 8400-meter synthetic surface running tracks. Outside the stadium, there is a special
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Images from http://ci.mofcom.gov.cn/article/todayheader/202010/20201003007355.shtml.
Figure 1. Olympic Stadium in Abidjan, Ivory Coast.
football training ground with artificial lawn, an outdoor tennis court, a handball court, a basketball court and a volleyball court with acrylic surface, as well as auxiliary outdoor training ground and 1400 parking Spaces. Since its completion, the China-Canada Friendship Stadium has successfully hosted the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations Final and closing ceremony, the “New York Forum”, the French Super Cup and other important events, making it the preferred venue for Gabon to hold large-scale events. The opening and utilization of Sino-Canada Friendship Stadium after its completion show that its benefits are very ideal (Figure 2).
4.3. Brazzaville Stadium
Has a “golden sun” Brazzaville stadium is located in the northern suburbs of the Midwest state of the Republic of the Congo in Africa the capital Brazzaville gold mine of the Congo river, is the Congo Brazzaville stadium (cloth) government to undertake the 11th games) in Africa and to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first African games held in Brazzaville and invested. Brazzaville Stadium project is undertaken by China Construction Eighth Engineering Bureau, with a total land area of 900,000 square meters and a total construction area of 350,000 square meters. The total contract cost is 220.919 billion Cfa francs, equivalent to about 441 million US dollars. Including subsequent incremental works, the total project amount is 546 million US dollars. Together with the complex stadium and aquatics center, it has more than 72,200 seats, including 14 outdoor venues for competitions and warm-up, making it the largest complex stadium facility China State Construction Corporation has implemented overseas so far. The 60,000-seat stadium is the second largest in Africa, after the First National Bank Stadium, which hosts the FIFA World Cup in South Africa. The 11th African Games was successfully held in Brazzaville Stadium. More than 8000 athletes from 51 African countries participated in the games. This not only realized the long-cherished dream of five million People of the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), but also
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Figure 2. Gabon Friendship Stadium.
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Figure 3. Brazzaville Stadium.
showed Africa and the world the face of the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) today (Figure 3).
4.4. Senegal Competitive Wrestling Arena
In 2014, China agreed to assist the construction of a modern competitive wrestling arena in Senegal as a key foreign aid project of the Ministry of Commerce. The project, contracted by Hunan Construction Engineering Co., LTD., was officially started on May 25, 2016. It is located in Picin District, Dakar, capital of Senegal, with a planned construction area of 7 hectares and a total construction area of 18,000 square meters. The height of the building is 23.2 meters, the highest point is 50.466 meters, the main arch span is 206.9 meters, the maximum width of the plane is about 45 meters. The grandstand is a reinforced concrete frame structure composed of three parts: south, north and west. The contents include: Oval competition venue (long axis from east to west 75 m, short axis from north to south 65 m), the central competitive wrestling venue (round with a diameter of 15 m), entrance roads for competitors, 2 warm-up areas for competitors, 2 ramps for folk customs display of competitors, performance areas for singers, news reporting areas, etc. The venue not only meets the requirements of wrestling matches and ceremonies, but also considers the use of multi-functions. The main arch with a length of 206.9 meters is like a “golden belt” across the wrestling venue. Completed in April 2018, the project is the largest Chinese aid project in Senegal and constitutes the first and only wrestling stadium in Africa, becoming a landmark building in Dakar city (Figure 4).
5. Questions and Suggestions
5.1. Aid Effectiveness Evaluation
First, promote the development of sports in African countries. According to
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Images from https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_15544245.
Figure 4. Senegal competitive wrestling arena.
incomplete statistics, the number of large-scale stadiums and gymnasiums built by China in Africa has reached more than 80. Most of the venues for the Africa Cup of Football, which is held every two years and has great political, economic and sports influence, are invested and built by China. For example, stadiums used for the Africa Cup of Nations held by Angola in 2008, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea (jointly) in 2012, South Africa in 2013, Equatorial Guinea in 2015 and Gabon in 2017 were all built by China. On the other hand assistance to Africa stadium projects to provide a lot of jobs for local residents, improve the income level and living conditions of local residents, at the same time to cultivate a large number of local technical workers and engineers, the stadium built for the local place of undertakings of physical culture and sports to provide quality and even Africa, set up training center, cultivate sports talents, It has vigorously promoted the development of sports in African countries.
Second, we need to promote the formation and development of the concept of China-Africa community with a shared future. By China in Africa covering sports venues in Africa, China has formed its far-reaching influence, China’s sports venues in Africa covering contains a lot of Chinese elements, the African countries understanding and recognition, but also embodies the Chinese people’s enthusiasm and friendly, deepen the trust between the Chinese and African peoples, and for China’s national image recognition, Thus promoting the formation and development of the concept of China-Africa community with a shared future.
5.2. Countermeasures and Suggestions for Healthy Development
One is the lack of feasibility investigation before the decision making of the stadium project. The demonstration of the project is not only demonstrated in the full demonstration of the main links of the project itself, such as the size, site selection and supporting facilities of the stadium, but also in the demonstration of the supporting factors of the construction project, such as the analysis and demonstration of the sports industry and social economic development of the recipient country and the demand for the stadium. Analysis and demonstration of the geographical location, transportation, economic development, population concentration and other conditions of the area where the venue project is located, as well as evaluation and demonstration of the aid requirements of the recipient countries, etc. In particular, for projects with long-term and heritage like stadiums and gymnasiums, full scientific demonstration and evaluation should always be adhered to, which is the guarantee to minimize problems.
Second, we should try to avoid the construction of multiple large-scale stadiums in the same country. Some projects are difficult to be completed and become unfinished buildings, resulting in huge waste. Or the stadiums that have been built may not play their actual role, which may have a negative impact on China’s aid of waste and pomposity. In the construction of stadiums and gymnasiums, supporting facilities should be improved, functional areas should be expanded, and professionals in venue management and operation should be trained for recipient countries, and special venue management and maintenance personnel should be employed in the way of enterprise management and market operation, so as to give full play to the role of stadiums and improve the utilization rate of stadiums and gymnasiums.
Third, we need to promote the diversified development of aid methods. From grant assistance to comprehensive cooperation, we have gone through 60 years of aid, which has transformed China’s assistance to African recipient countries from blood transfusion to hematopoiiation, and enhanced the concept of “teaching people to fish” to “teaching people to fish”. In terms of the scale of construction assistance, it will no longer blindly seek to expand, but carry out construction assistance or repair and transform the original venues according to the actual demand. Interest-free loans or concessional loans are more often adopted, which can not only reduce the economic burden of donor countries, but also meet the needs of construction aid as much as possible.
Fourth, promote the institutionalization of foreign aid. Although China has made rich achievements and experience in the construction of stadiums and gymnasiums, it is still in its infancy in terms of institutional construction. In the future, it is necessary to strengthen the institutionalization of foreign aid, including gradually improving foreign aid laws, specific aid work methods, regulations and regulations to meet the needs of foreign aid development.
6. Conclusion
Assistance to Africa stadium projects, promoted the recipient to the development of sports undertakings, establish training center, cultivate sports talents, help the recipient countries successfully hold the African cup of nations, such as sports, consolidate and develop China a friendly relationship with the recipient countries, promoted the mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of the central African, promote the economic development of the recipient countries and improve the livelihood of the people, It has become a landmark building in recipient countries, reflecting the friendship between China and African recipient countries and promoting the formation and development of the concept of China-Africa community with a shared future.
NOTES
*Zhang Jianli was born in 1975 and he is now an associate professor of Zhejiang Normal University with a Ph.D degree.