Breastfeeding and obesity: a meta-analysis

Jeanne M. Stolzer
DOI: 10.4236/ojpm.2011.13013                

Abstract

Over the last decade, obesity rates have reached epidemic proportions in the United States of America. Comorbidities associated with overweight and obesity include, but are not limited to, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and elevated cholesterol levels. As a direct result of obesity, data indicates that these diseases are now being detected in an unprecedented number of American children, adolescents, and adults. Although the major cause of the obesity epidemic in America has thus far been attributed to excessive caloric intake and lack of physical activity, this paper will explore the pivotal role that breastfeeding plays in the prevention of overweight and obesity throughout the life course. Epidemiological data demonstrates that breastfeeding significantly reduces the incidence of overweight and obesity and that exclusive and long term breastfeeding has been strongly correlated with a reduction in LDL cholesterol, blood pressure related disorders, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular dysfunction. While it is certain that diet and exer cise are integral factors associated with overweight and obesity, the time has come for a collective recognition of the protective effects associated with breastfeeding if we are serious in our endeavor to eradicate the overweight and obesity epidemic in America.

Keywords

Obesity; Breastfeeding and Obesity; Breastfeeding; Lactation and Obesity

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Neilsen, S. and Popkin, B. (2003) Patterns and trends in food portion sizes. Journal of the American Medical Association, 289, 450-454. doi:10.1001/jama.289.4.450
[2]	Miller, J., Rosenbloom, A. and Silverstein, J. (2004) Childhood obesity. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89, 4211-4220. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0284
[3]	Stolzer, J. (2005) ADHD in America: A bioecological analysis. Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 65-75.
[4]	Livingstone, M., Robson, P., Wallace, J. and McKinley, M., (2003) How active are we? Levels of routine physiccal activity in children and adults. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 62, 681-701. doi:10.1079/PNS2003291
[5]	American Academy of Pediatrics (2003) Policy statement: The prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity. Pediatrics, 110, 496-507.
[6]	Baumslag, N. and Michels, B. (1995) Milk, money, and madness: The culture and politics of breastfeeding. Bergin and Garvey, London.
[7]	Palmer, G. (1991) The politics of breastfeeding. Harper Collins, London.
[8]	Margolis, L. (1991) The ethics of accepting gifts from pharmaceutical companies. Pediatrics, 88, 39-54.
[9]	Goran, M. (2001) Metabolic precursors and effects of obesity in children: A decade of progress, 1990-1999. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73, 158-171.
[10]	Deckelbaum, R. and Williams, C. (2001) Childhood obesity: The health issue. Obesity Research, 9, 239-243. doi:10.1038/oby.2001.125
[11]	World Health Organization (2007) Evidence on the long term effects of breastfeeding: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Geneva, Switzerland, 1-52.
[12]	Freedman, D., Dietz, W., Srinivasan, S. and Berenson, G. (1999) The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents: The Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics, 103, 1175-1182. doi:10.1542/peds.103.6.1175
[13]	United States Department of Health and Human Services (2000) HHS Blueprint for action on breastfeeding. Washington, DC.
[14]	American Academy of Pediatrics (2005) Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics, 115, 496-506. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2491
[15]	World Health Organization (2000) Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic. World Health Organization, Series 894, Geneva, Switzerland.
[16]	Stolzer, J. and Hossain, S. (2005) Physician breastfeeding education: A regional assessment. The Female Patient, 30, 59-71.
[17]	Stolzer, J. and Zeece, P. (2006) Low income women and physician breastfeeding advice: A regional assessment. Health Education Journal, 65, 158-176. doi:10.1177/001789690606500203
[18]	Kramer, M. (1981) Do breastfeeding and delayed introduction of solid foods protect against subsequent obesity? Journal of Pediatrics, 98, 883-887. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(81)80579-3
[19]	Lucas, A., Boyes, S., Bloom, R. and Aynsley-Green, A. (1981) Metabolic and endocrine responses to a milk feed in six-day-old term infants: Differences between breast and cow’s milk formula feeding. Acta Paediatra Scandivica, 70, 195-200.
[20]	McCance, R. (1962) Food, growth and time. Lancet, 2, 671-676. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90499-3
[21]	Morley, R. and Dwyer, T. (2002) Early exposures and later health and development. Public Health Issues in Infant and Child Nutrition, 48, 257-278.
[22]	Waterland, R. and Garza, C. (1999) Potential mechanisms of metabolic imprinting that leads to chronic disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69, 179-197.
[23]	Dewey, K. (2003) Is breastfeeding protective against childhood obesity? Journal of Human Lactation, 19, 9-18. doi:10.1177/0890334402239730
[24]	Stini, W. (1978) Early nutrition, growth, disease and human longevity. Nutrition and Cancer, 1, 31-39. doi:10.1080/01635587809513599
[25]	Balaban, G. and Silva, G. (2004) Protective effect of breastfeeding against childhood obesity. Journal de Pediatria, 80, 419-428.
[26]	Hamosh, M. (2001) Bioactive factors in human milk. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 48, 1-19. doi:10.1016/S0031-3955(05)70286-8
[27]	Cripps, R., Martin-Gronert, M. and Ozanne, M. (2005) Fetal and perinatal programming of appetite. Clinical Science, 109, 1-11. doi:10.1042/CS20040367
[28]	Stuart-Macadam, P. and Dettwyler, K. (1995) Breast-feeding: Biocultural perspectives. Aldine DeGruyter, New York.
[29]	Armstrong, J. and Reilly, J. (2002) Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. Lancet, 359, 2003-2006. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08837-2
[30]	Toschke, A., Vignerova, J., Lhotska, L., Osancova, K., Koletzko, B. and Von Kries, R. (1991) Overweight and obesity in 6 to 14 year old Czech children in 1991: Protective effect of breastfeeding. Journal of Pediatrics, 141, 764-769. doi:10.1067/mpd.2002.128890
[31]	Gillman, M., Rifas-Shiman, S., Camargo, C., Berkey, C., Frazier, L,. Rockett, H., Field, A. and Colditz, A. (2001) Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breast- fed as infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2461-2470. doi:10.1001/jama.285.19.2461
[32]	Bergmann, K., Bergmann, R., Von Kries, R., Bohm, O., Richter, R., Dudenhauser, J. and Wahn, U. (2003) Early determinants of child overweight and adiposity in a birth cohort study: Role of breastfeeding. International Journal of Obesity, 27, 162-172. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.802200
[33]	Mayer-Davis, E., Rifas-Shiman, S., Zhou, L., Hu, F., Colditz, G. and Gillman, M. (2006) Breastfeeding and risk for childhood obesity: Does maternal diabetes or obesity status matter? Diabetes Care, 22, 38-51.
[34]	Arenz, S., Ruckerl, R. and Von Kries, R. (2004) Breast- feeding and childhood obesity: A systematic review. International Journal of Obesity, 28, 1247-1256. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802758
[35]	Rajala, M. and Scherer, P. (2003) Minireview: The adipocyte at the crossroads of energy homeostasis, inflamemation, and atherosclerosis. Endocrinology, 144, 3765- 3785. doi:10.1210/en.2003-0580
[36]	Owen, C., Martin, R., Whincup, P., Smith, G. and Cook, D. (2006) Does breastfeeding influence risk of type 2 diabetes in later life? A quantitative analysis of published evidence. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84, 1043-1054.
[37]	Ravelli, A. (2000) Infant feeding and adult glucose tolerance, lipid profile, blood pressure, and obesity. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 82, 248-253.
[38]	Martin, R. (2005) Breastfeeding in infancy and blood pressure in later life: Systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology, 161, 15-26. doi:10.1093/aje/kwh338
[39]	Plagemann, A. and Harder, T. (2005) Breastfeeding and the risk of obesity and related metabolic diseases in the child. Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders, 3, 222-229. doi:10.1089/met.2005.3.222
[40]	Singhal, A., Cole, T., Fewtrell, M. and Lucas, A. (2004) Breastmilk feeding and lipoprotein profile in adolescents born preterm: Follow-up of a prospective randomized study. The Lancet, 363, 9421-9428. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16198-9
[41]	Davis, P., Dawson, J., Riley, W. and Lauer, R. (2001) Carotid intimal-medical thickness is related to cardio- vascular risk factors measured from childhood through middle ages. The Muscatine Study. Circulation, 104, 2815-2819. doi:10.1161/hc4601.099486
[42]	Rich-Edwards, J., Stampfer, M., Manson, J., Rosner, B., Hu, F., Michels, K. and Willet, W. (2004) Breastfeeding during infancy and the risk of cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Epidemiology, 15, 550-556. doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000129513.69321.ba
[43]	Owen, C., Whincup, P, Odoki, K., Gilg, J. and Cook, D. (2002) Infant feeding and blood cholesterol: A study of adolescents and a systematic review. Pediatrics, 110, 597-608. doi:10.1542/peds.110.3.597
[44]	Tracy, R., Newman, W., Wattigney, W. and Berenson, G. (1995) Risk factors and atherosclerosis in youth autopsy findings of the Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of Medical Science, 310, 537-541. doi:10.1097/00000441-199512000-00007