1. Introduction
The concept of cultural diplomacy is not only a term of art in international relations and has become one of the standard terms in foreign policy thinking. They have also been incorporated into policy portfolios by national, regional and local governments as well as supranational organizations. They have emerged as tools of national self-promotion or what Raymond Williams (1984) calls “cultural policies of display” (Paschalidis, 2009). Cultural diplomacy, often associated with public diplomacy, is considered a more citizen-oriented form of diplomacy than the standard model, targeting no longer other governments, but audiences and publics in different countries and globally. It is increasingly understood as a transnational process in which not only governments and their institutions can participate, but also stakeholders from civil society or the private sector (Cull, 2009), a cross-cultural dialogue based on mutuality and mutual listening.
The UK and the British Council have long been recognized as global leaders in the use of culture as an instrument of diplomacy and foreign policy. However, as the cultural landscape in Europe begins to shift as a result of Brexit, the UK’s cultural diplomacy has become increasingly important. The strategic use of cultural relations has been a fundamental way for countries to communicate and create narratives, which in turn constructs external perceptions of their culture and values. Cultural institutions such as the British Council, through their various initiatives, have played an important role in constructing discourse around themes such as cultural identity, foreign policy and physical and cultural borders. Cultural institutions lead the changing landscape of international relations, conveying a rich message that collectively sets a broader international agenda.
The British Council is a cultural relations organization established by the British government in 1934, originally named British Committee for Relations with Other Countries. It was established with the aim of spreading the English language and culture to people overseas in order to improve Britain’s international standing. The British Council was granted a Royal Charter in 1940 and was entrusted with the mission of promoting a wider understanding of Britain and the English language in the world and establishing closer cultural ties between Britain and other countries. One of the features of the British public diplomacy system is the interplay between the official and unofficial areas of public affairs. The 1995 Capital Expenditure Review and the creation of the Public Diplomacy Division of the Foreign Office combined already existing activities into a new organizational structure to manage the British Council’s cultural relations, press and information activities. Subsequently, UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (2007) annual report outlined a definition of public diplomacy as the achievement of their international strategic priorities through engagement with the public overseas. In 2018, the UK’s official emphasis on soft power acknowledges that “we have broader assets available to few other countries and which hugely reinforce our soft power (Foreign Affairs Select Committee, 2018)”. While modern public diplomacy is a two-way street (Melissen, 2005) (pp. 18), with diplomats engaged in public diplomacy always considering their own national interests and foreign policy goals, the British Council envisions its work as cultural relations, emphasizing the use of culture to develop multi-layered networks of relationships. Funding, agenda setting, evaluation, hierarchy, and appointment authority constitute the typical system of interaction between cultural institutions and their reporting bodies (Kizlari & Fouseki, 2017).
This paper provides a systematic analysis of the British Council’s role in British cultural diplomacy by mapping out its policy instruments, organizational framework, and overseas activities. By analyzing the interaction between the British Council and British cultural diplomacy, the study discusses the inherent relationship between national strategic planning and the different policy instruments and activities it generates. This research uses the case study approach, drawing on the British Council as an example of cultural institution that actively promotes national cultural diplomacy. The British Council’s global activities demonstrate that cultural institutions provide an important reference for audiences as creators and communicators of cultural diplomacy and soft power narratives.
2. The Concept of Cultural Diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy is the act of presenting a cultural product to an audience in an attempt to engage them in the ideas that the maker believes it represents (Fisher, 2020). Cultural Diplomacy can also be a one-way rather than a two-way exchange, such as when a country concentrates on promoting its own language, explaining its policies and views, or telling its story to the rest of the world. Regardless of the language used, the key to diplomacy is the dynamic nature of power, with presentation and one-way communication being a major part of cultural diplomacy. It originally referred to the process by which officials in the service of national governments used cultural exchange and mobility, or attempted to direct it, to promote their perceived national interests. But it was soon expanded to mean “the exchange of ideas, information, arts, and other cultural aspects among nations and their peoples to promote mutual understanding” (Cummings, 2003).
As with public diplomacy, the practice of cultural diplomacy is gradually becoming more taken over by government departments outside of the foreign ministry and is being employed for objectives such as country branding and portfolio promotion. Simultaneously, cultural diplomacy is now often understood as a particular type or dimension of public diplomacy, so that the distinction between the two has become rather blurred.
In this era of globalization, as the geopolitics of the distribution of economic and political power in the world continues to change, cultural diplomacy occupies an important field of discourse, focusing primarily on the management of relations between nation-states and other states in the international arena. However, in reality, mutual understanding is sometimes just the goal. The real protagonists of cultural diplomacy are never the abstract “nations” or the generalized “peoples.” It is the agents and envoys of the government who are the ones. In other words, cultural diplomacy is a governmental act that operates in the name of a clearly defined ethos of national or local representation in a space where nationalism and internationalism merge (Ang et al., 2015).
3. British Council: Organization Framework and Activities
3.1. Management Framework
The British Council is a registered charity and a non-governmental organization whose purpose is to promote the teaching of English and the understanding of British culture by foreign nationals. The policy nature of the organization is very strong, and it is closely linked to British foreign and Commonwealth affairs, and its activities contribute to the achievement of British political and economic goals. The British Council follows a very specific top-down structure in designing its strategies. Underpinning all strategies is a management statement, which is essentially a contract between the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the British Council London setting time-bound targets (British Council, 2013). At the British Council, the flow of instructions from the center to the periphery follows a fairly standard approach: offices design their local programs according to a basic strategic plan agreed upon by headquarters and the Foreign Office. The British Council is a very tightly structured organization with a very tight management structure. The strategic direction of the British Council is set by the Board of Directors, who are appointed for a five-year renewable term. Day-to-day management is the responsibility of a General Director, supported by a senior management strategy team and a number of senior managers. The British Council has a Directorate of Educational Visits and Exchange Centers, an Overseas Development Administration, and several advisory committees and expert advisory groups. All of the British Council’s senior managers have government experience or backgrounds, and its senior officers do not arise from within the organization. As a result, the British Council does not operate entirely independently of the British government.
The Board of Directors is the guardian of the British Council’s purpose and is ultimately responsible for the organization. The Board has five formal sub-committees for Audit and Finance, Commercial, Appointments, Remuneration, and Risk, and has established protocols to support the effective collaboration of the sub-committees. The Board of Trustees holds the senior leadership team accountable for the performance, strategy and policies of the organization. The Trustees meet six times a year as a Board of Trustees and the minutes are redacted and made available for public inspection.
The Senior Leadership Team is responsible for the overall strategy, direction and management of the British Council. The CEO and other members of the Senior Leadership Team are responsible for the management and performance of the organization and for implementing the strategies approved by the Board of Trustees. The entire Senior Leadership Team includes the Chief and Deputy Executive, the Director of Digital, Partnerships and Innovation, the Director of English and Exams, the Director of Cultural Engagement, the Director of Global Network, the Chief Financial Officer, the Chief People Officer and the Chief Operating Officer, each responsible to their respective directorates.
To improve the quality and intellectual independence of the British Council, expert advice from the Industry Advisory Panel and the UK National Advisory Council was drawn upon. Members of these panels and committees serve in an advisory capacity and have no decision-making responsibilities. The Commission has advisory groups in the following business areas: Arts and Creative Economy, Digital Information, Education, English, and Society (British Council, 2018b).
The British Council has constructed its own global network, which includes Policy and External Relations (including the Policy and Parliamentary Relations and Stakeholder Engagement departments) in addition to its regional presence in the UK (including the Northern Ireland region and the Scottish region). The British Council has offices in the Americas region, the EU region, South Asia, the Middle East and North Africa region, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Greater Europe region.
The British Council’s English and Examinations business has several management sections in New Product Development, English Language, Marketing, Examinations and British Council Schools. Cultural Engagement is broken down into six areas: Strategic Planning, Education, Society, Film, Literature, and Music.
3.2. Financial Framework
The British Council’s funding is divided into two parts. One is a grant from the British government, with agencies such as the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the Overseas Development Administration responsible for regular annual allocations. The other part comes from its own operating income. 78% of the British Council’s income comes from teaching and examinations, tender contracts and partnerships. Another 22% comes from aid funds and contributions from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office, which are provided to guarantee activities in countries where profitability cannot be guaranteed alone (British Council, 2018a). Since the early 1950s, the British government has periodically examined the activities of the British Council, made review reports and allocated funds to support some of its programs accordingly. The focus of the British Council’s work and the direction of its funding and assistance depend entirely on the direction of British foreign policy, and since 1935 it has received substantial annual grants from the British government, with its expenditures reviewed by a specialized agency, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
In short, the British Council operates largely on funds generated by teaching and examinations, and it does receive financial support from the Foreign Office, and is therefore accountable not only to the British government but also to the British taxpayer. As its report notes, it is a British charity and British public body governed by Royal Charter, which means that the British Council serves a higher purpose, one that benefits everyone with whom it works and engages. This is further articulated in the report through the statement, “Our work enhances Britain’s security, prosperity and influence, and in doing so helps make the world a better and safer place” (British Council, 2018b).
3.3. Connection with UK government
The British Council’s primary mission is to create value for the UK and is committed to strategically aligning its work with the UK’s long-term international objectives. It provides support for the broad long-term international policy interests and priorities of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, other relevant UK government departments, and the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
In terms of communication with the UK government and devolved regional governments, the British Council engages in significant consultation with government, including seeking the views and representations of government departments, other public bodies and key organizational sectors on major issues in order to develop the British Council’s work programme. In addition, the British Council maintains an ongoing working relationship and communication with UK government departments and regional governments across the UK through regular meetings with ministers and officials. The Board of Directors of the British Council is appointed directly by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and its Chairman is required to meet annually with the Foreign Secretary.
The British Council has established the All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) of the British Council to work with MPs, which is made up of MPs and peers with an interest in the work of the British Council and international cultural affairs. Its purpose is to enable MPs to learn more about and better understand the British Council, and to support it by offering advice and encouragement in its day-to-day and long-term work. The group holds regular events and meetings, and informs and announces its activities, and its secretariat is also part of the British Council. The British Council also works regularly with MPs to contribute to the UK’s achievement of international relations building through English, the arts, education and society in order to achieve its strategic objectives, for example, the British Council invites ministers and MPs to speak at its annual conferences such as the Global Higher Education Conference. The British Council also makes information publicly available where it funds MPs to undertake overseas visits, in order to publish details of all visits by MPs it funds or partly funds.
In addition, the British Council works with government MPs as well as opposition MPs, based on their interest in the British Council and its work, rather than their political affiliation. Through this, the British Council seeks to achieve a balance between the different political views that the committee can present.
Based on the British Council’s framework and contextualization, it is clear that the British government and related institutions are consciously working through the British Council to activate cultural diplomacy and shape the discourse around language and culture in order to deliver prescribed messages that are consistent with the country’s broader political goals. The British Council’s strategy and perceptions appear to be increasingly focused on the curation and dissemination of specific narratives, controlling the way in which British stories are communicated abroad. Moreover, the strategy is based on the principle of working together to enhance the impact of the narratives described above. A variety of messages are disseminated in parallel with each other to set the agenda for international discourse.
4. Overseas Activities
4.1. The Road to Internationalization—Performance and Activities of Overseas Institutions
All activities of the British Council are guided by the national interest of the UK, which has been the focus of the Council’s mission and work at different times. The British Council makes an important contribution to the achievement of policy objectives, international strategies and plans for UK government departments. At the same time, it has made a significant contribution to spreading the UK’s influence and enhancing its soft power through its active work in culture and education around the world. The British Council works in 229 cities in 111 countries around the world. For ease of management and efficiency, the British Council has divided these more than 100 countries into eight geographical regions: the Americas, East Asia, the European Union, the Middle East and North Africa, South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, the UK, and Europe outside the EU.
Overseas, the British Council has local cultural education offices, and the performance reports published on its website show that its work is extensive, with no expense spared in funding the British Council’s work overseas, and has evolved into a three-dimensional system of outreach in the arts, schooling, science and technology, climate change, skills training, English and exams, sport, social management young people’s communities and higher education. Overseas, the British Council works in partnership with international agencies and organizations, local governments, the private sector and individuals.
The British Council currently has offices in 223 cities in 109 countries, employs 12,500 people and is based in London. The British Council works in a wide range of areas, including arts and culture, English language, education and society, as well as science and sport. The offices in each country are not strictly subordinate to the UK headquarters. Under the authority of the headquarters, the British Council offices in each country can carry out activities in a variety of flexible ways according to the local conditions, and cooperate in relevant projects selectively according to the different characteristics of each country.
1) International cooperation
The British Council’s international partners include three categories: international institutions and organizations, local governments at all levels, and the local private sector or individuals.
Since the late 1940s and early 1950s, the British Council has been the agent of many international institutions and organizations to arrange short-term visit programs. Since the end of the Cold War, many international organizations and institutions dedicated to world peace and development have, due to various factors, sometimes entrusted their activities in certain regions or in certain fields to other organizations, especially non-governmental organizations, which are more convenient and beneficial. Therefore, the British Council often becomes the trustee or agent of these international organizations or institutions, including the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the European Union, NATO, etc. The international organizations and institutions provide financial or technical support, and the British Council is responsible for the implementation of the specific.
2) Local governments at all levels, private sector or individuals
The governments of the host countries are also important partners of the British Council. As a foreign legal entity, it must first obtain the consent and support of the local government in order to carry out its activities in the host country, especially in politically sensitive activities such as cultural diplomacy. Therefore, the British Council places special emphasis on the concept of win-win cooperation in its work in order to gain the political and legal support of the local government. Economic benefits are also the goal of the cooperation between the two.
The British Council’s overseas activities are often carried out in partnership with the local private sector or individuals. On the one hand, these private forces have a broad reach that fits the British Council’s goal of expanding its audience; on the other hand, these private organizations can take advantage of the British Council’s extensive global network to expand their influence and interests. There is no doubt that such partnerships produce win-win results and bring lucrative benefits to both parties.
4.2. Government Partnerships
The British Council works closely with foreign governments to improve local education systems and job training.
In Europe, it has a long history of working with governments on English language policy and teacher professional development, such as the bilingual education program in Spain, the integrated language learning program in France, and the English language teaching enhancement program with the German government. Since 2006, the British Council has worked with ministries of education and government departments in South Africa, India, Venezuela and Pakistan on a wide range of teaching reforms, teacher training and vocational skills training. In 2018, on behalf of the British government, the British Council established a degree accreditation framework with the governments of Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru to promote mobility and cooperation in higher education in the UK and Latin America. In China, the British Council is directly responsible for education agreements between the UK and China, supporting the annual UK-China Ministerial Education Summit and working with the Chinese Ministry of Education Examination Centre to promote the international alignment of English examinations in China.
To further enhance the affinity of British cultural diplomacy, the British Council has established “open and committed; expert and inclusive; optimistic and bold” as its values. The British Council is guided by these values, and its work and operations are guided by them. It calls for treating people with modesty and respect, listening to them, creating opportunities for them and developing their talents. It requires consistency and honesty in word and deed. It requires a willingness to learn from and share with others, and encourages people to explore new ideas in an environment of trust. It also requires listening to and valuing the ideas and insights of others. These values are centered on the feelings of others and bring cultural diplomacy closer to the subject and the client.
In April 2014, delegates from 70 countries gathered in the United States to hear an extensive research paper entitled “The Global Impact of Higher Education Policy” at the British Council’s annual Going Global conference. The Global Impact of Higher Education Policy” research paper. The British Council’s English language outreach and impact communication has been a great success. In today’s world, English has become the global lingua franca; along with the globalization of the economy comes the globalization of culture, and the Anglo-Saxon culture in which English is embedded has become the dominant language. As English as a language has become more widespread and used around the world, English culture and the lifestyles and values of English-speaking societies have quietly influenced non-English speaking countries. All of this adds up to a great deal of “soft power” in favor of those who successfully spread the language, creating substantial economic benefits and cultural appeal for the UK.
Throughout the British Council’s activities, there is a continuing tension between “traditional” cultural diplomacy activities based on social and cultural exchange, such as people-to-people contact and collaborative projects, and cultural diplomacy activities premised on sectoral and market competition in the globalized cultural sphere. Building international cultural relations has never been apolitical, and the cultural sector itself may show a tendency to attach itself to other areas of policy, redefining the relationship in positive terms (Belfiore, 2012). The organization has been promoting British culture and English education in countries around the world for more than half a century. Its activities include providing opportunities for overseas people interested in studying in the UK, offering general English and business English courses for students and teachers, and providing different kinds of authoritative and professional English language tests for different countries. The British Council also acts as a bridge to export British education and works with local educational institutions and universities in different countries.
4.3. Areas of Influence
1) International development
The British Council has implemented many projects funded by the Department for International Development (DFID) rather than the UK Foreign Office. For example, starting in 2006, the DFID-funded HE Links aimed to provide capacity building for higher education in developing countries (Fisher, 2020). By 2018, the British Council achieved spending £136 million of its 2017-18 £168 million Foreign and Commonwealth Office grant on ODA to countries, including Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia for development activities. The shift in funding for the British Council between 2006 and 2018 has seen an increasing emphasis on project delivery with a focus on international development. This increases the possibility of considering the British Council as hard power, based on Nye’s definition of the concepts of soft and hard power.
The British Council’s extensive activities have had the effect of direct messaging or advocacy. In Uganda, for example, people from all walks of life, including the government’s Ministry of Gender, were invited by the British Council to conduct research and discussions on diversity issues facing people and organizations. Within three months, the Equal Opportunities Act was passed in Uganda. Other examples include work on climate change (Fisher, 2020). This approach may be based on networking and developing relationships, but these relationships also have the purpose of promoting specific positions. Similarly, the educational reform work undertaken by the British Council has a similar purpose.
2) Education
The British Council’s education cooperation areas include basic education, higher education, skills and vocational education, and science and research. The aim of basic education is to improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools and to help young people succeed in a global society, targeting children and adolescents; the aim of higher education is to support governments, institutions and individuals at home and abroad to take positive action in the areas of national, community and personal development, and to promote friendship and understanding between the British people and the people of other countries through cooperation in higher education, targeting mainly adults entering The aim of Skills and Vocational Education is to provide technical and employability skills training for unemployed young people globally to reduce social instability and promote economic development, targeting unemployed young people; the aim of Science and Research is to connect scientists and researchers from around the world and provide them with information on how to access funding and work in the UK, as well as encouraging civil Science and Research aims to connect scientists and researchers from around the world, providing them with information on how to access funding and work in the UK, as well as encouraging civil society discussion of issues such as science and sustainability.
Scholarships and English language teaching are two of its main forms of educational collaboration. The British Council currently administers more than 200 UK scholarship programs, most notably the UK Government’s Aspiring Leaders Scholarships and Bursaries, the UK’s Commonwealth Scholarships and Bursaries, and the Hornby Education Foundation Scholarships, among others.
3) Culture and Society
The British Council’s work in culture covers both the arts and the social sector.
In the arts sector, the British Council showcases the UK’s vibrant and innovative creative industries to the world through its work with arts professionals and brings international arts and culture to the UK, enabling audiences to access cultural experiences from around the world. In addition to this, the Society’s arts programmes support social change, foster collaboration and networking and promote the cultural skills needed to develop a global creative economy, and help creative professionals to collaborate internationally, access funding and be able to continue working in the event of conflict. In 2018-19, 39,000 people worldwide participated live in arts events organized by the British Council for Education.
The British Council’s social programs help individuals and institutions gain the skills necessary to build more accountable institutions, strengthen civil society, expand people’s access to justice, and promote the rule of law. Helps entrepreneurs create business growth and employment opportunities by sharing the UK’s expertise and experience in social enterprise. Provide people with skills and improve community cohesion through physical education classes. Help develop the confidence and skills of women and girls to participate more fully in society.
4) English Language Teaching, Testing, and Accreditation
The British Council has established offices and teaching centers around the world to develop and teach English language courses for overseas students, as well as other courses related to British culture and language, to collect and manage materials and information about language education, and to provide professional consulting services about education; and to provide marketing plans and promotional programs for English language teaching institutions, depending on the language teaching situation. The British Council also licenses educational institutions such as over 550 schools, colleges and universities in the UK to provide high quality English language teaching in 58 countries. It also tailors its programs to the specific requirements of its audiences, such as English for children, English for teenagers, English for adults, English for universities, English for the workplace, English for companies, English for peacekeeping, English for soccer, etc.
The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is the most important of the language proficiency tests that the British Council sponsors or co-sponsors. Since its inception in 1989, IELTS has been a global leader in the assessment of English for study, immigration and career development because of its authority, fairness and security. More than 2.5 million people worldwide take the IELTS test each year in 140 countries and territories.
In addition, the British Council works with other organizations and institutions in the UK to administer vocational, entrance and college exams that test not only language proficiency but also professional competence. The British Council currently works with over 150 academic and vocational exam boards and universities in the UK to provide UK qualifications to English learners around the world through 124 test centers worldwide.
Actors who appear to attribute their power to the dominant player can demonstrate their own forms of agency, thereby reshaping relationships and creating cultural value from their relationships. The British Council’s goal is to build an appreciation of British creativity and scientific innovation among people overseas and to enhance their exposure to the diversity of British culture. Specifically, it includes the following. i. providing free consultation on English education; ii. promoting English teaching programs and seeking more professionals to assist in teaching English in other countries; iii. opening examination centers in more countries and organizing English proficiency tests for candidates; iv. conducting British arts and technology activities in other countries and promoting cultural exchanges; v. strengthening ties with other countries, carrying out cooperative projects, and establishing long-term and stable Sixth, provide support for higher education reform in other countries and promote mutual cooperation with other countries.
5. Conclusion
Cultural nationalism is arguably a key dimension of cultural diplomacy as a governmental practice. Political leaders and philosophers have long understood that power comes from setting the agenda and determining the framework for debate. The ability to establish preferences is often associated with intangible resources of power, such as culture, ideology, and institutions (Nye, 1990). The British Council is an important agency of the British government in promoting the British national interest through the promotion of British culture and education. Especially after former Prime Minister Tony Blair took office, the British Council’s overseas activities were seen as part of the government’s public diplomacy. After more than eighty years of development, the British Council has become a well-organized, large-scale formal organization. It is a cultural organization that serves national political interests in terms of both political affiliation and funding, and operates extensively around the world in the context of achieving financial sustainability. It is clear that the purpose of the British Council is to enhance the cultural identity and policy understanding of the British people in other countries in order to win their understanding and support for British foreign policy. In essence, it is an official cultural organization for cultural diplomacy under the leadership of the British Foreign Office and under the direct control of embassies and consulates abroad, and is a vehicle for cultural diplomacy and a tool for public diplomacy for the British government.
To sum up the above discussion, it is clear that the British Council is a quasi-official body that implements British cultural diplomacy, and it plays an indispensable role in the widespread dissemination of English, with a clear idea of language promotion, specific objectives and various methods. Through various forms of cooperation and alliances, such as cultural exchange, educational assistance, academic research, and pedagogical discussions, the British Council has successfully helped the UK to accomplish its mission of “making English a lingua franca in one generation”, thus effectively maintaining and enhancing the UK’s international standing. This has effectively maintained and enhanced Britain’s international influence and appeal. With cultural institutions such as the British Council as an example, states compete to involve national cultural institutions abroad, and cultural relations are imagined in a strictly one-sided, state-centered way. States performatively deploy and display their national cultures in proprietary ways as a means of achieving competitive advantage over other states. And the discourse of soft power has contributed to the intensification of cultural competition among nation-states. In an increasingly interdependent and interconnected world, cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy should be viewed in the context of the changing structure of international relations. Nation-states remain the primary actors in the international political arena.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to gratefully acknowledge the anonymous reviewers and the editors of Open Journal of Political Science for their valuable and constructive comments.