Parkinson’s disease and affective disorder: The temporal relationship

Abstract

In relationship between the affective disorders and Parkinson’s disease (PD) it was found that comorbidity was higher than expected in the majority of the studies. Patients with PD are at increased risk of developing depression and, conversely, recent studies have shown that patients with depressive disorders have increased risk of incident PD. However, the temporal associations between the disorders are not fully elucidated. From this review it could be learned that the temporal aspects strongly suggest that a neurobiological association exists between affective disorder and PD. This is illustrated with hitherto unpublished data. Some of these issues may be investigated in case register studies, e.g. by linkage of registers of somatic and psychiatric illness, and suggestions for future research are given. For GP’s, psychiatrists, geriatricians, and neurologists these new findings will lead to a better understanding and better treatment for patients with complicated comorbid conditions. Here timing is important!

Share and Cite:

Mørkeberg Nilsson, F. (2012) Parkinson’s disease and affective disorder: The temporal relationship. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 2, 96-109. doi: 10.4236/ojpsych.2012.22014.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Aarsland, D., Larsen, J.P., Lim, N.G., Janvin, C., Karlsen, K., Tandberg, E. and Cummings, J.L. (1999) Range of neuropsychiatric disturbances in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurg Psychiatry, 67, 492-496. doi:10.1136/jnnp.67.4.492
[2] Lieberman, A. (2006) Depression in Parkinson’s disease —A review. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 113, 1-8. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.2006.00536.x
[3] Schrag, A. (2004) Psychiatric aspects of Parkinson’s disease—An update. Journal of Neurology, 251, 795-804.
[4] Aarsland, D., Bronnick, K., Alves, G., Tysnes, O.B., Pedersen, K.F., Ehrt, U. and Larsen, J.P. (2009) The spectrum of neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with early untreated Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 80, 928-930. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2008.166959
[5] Shulman, L.M., Taback, R.L., Rabinstein, A.A. and Weiner, W.J. (2002) Non-recognition of depression and other non-motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 8, 193-197. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(01)00015-3
[6] Chaudhuri, K.R. and Schapira, A.H. (2009) Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease: Dopaminergic pathophysiology and treatment. Lancet Neurology, 8, 464-474. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70068-7
[7] Buchel, C. and Dolan, R.J. (2000) Classical fear conditioning in functional neuroimaging. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10, 219-223. doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00078-7
[8] Soares, J.C. and Mann, J.J. (1997) The anatomy of mood disorders—Review of structural neuroimaging studies. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 86-106. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00006-6
[9] Videbech, P. (1997) MRI findings in patients with affective disorder: A meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 96, 157-168. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1997.tb10146.x
[10] Soares, J.C. and Mann, J.J. (1997) The functional neuroanatomy of mood disorders. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 31, 393-432. doi:10.1016/S0022-3956(97)00016-2
[11] Kennedy, S.H., Javanmard, M. and Vaccarino, F.J. (1997) A review of functional neuroimaging in mood disorders: Positron emission tomography and depression. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42, 467-475.
[12] Au, W.L., Adams, J.R., Troiano, A. and Stoessl, A.J. (2006) Neuroimaging in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neural Transmission Supplementa, 70, 241-248.
[13] Lees, A.J., Hardy, J. and Revesz, T. (2009) Parkinson’s disease. Lancet, 373, 2055-2066. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60492-X
[14] Becker, T., Becker, G., Seufert, J., Hofmann, E., Lange, K.W., Naumann, M., Lindner, A., Reichmann, H., Riederer, P., Beckmann, H. and Reiners, K. (1997) Parkinson’s disease and depression: evidence for an alteration of the basal limbic system detected by transcranial sonography. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 63, 590-596. doi:10.1136/jnnp.63.5.590
[15] Walter, U., Behnke, S., Eyding, J., Niehaus, L., Postert, T., Seidel, G. and Berg, D. (2007) Transcranial brain parenchyma sonography in movement disorders: state of the art. Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology, 33, 15-25. doi:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2006.07.021
[16] Walter, U., Hoeppner, J., Prudente-Morrissey, L., Horowski, S., Herpertz, S.C. and Benecke, R. (2007) Parkinson’s disease-like midbrain sonography abnormalities are frequent in depressive disorders. Brain, 130, 1799-1807. doi:10.1093/brain/awm017
[17] Kessler, R.C. (1999) Comorbidity of Unipolar and Bipolar Depression with Other Psychiatric Disorders in a General Population Survey. In: Tohen, M., Ed., Comorbidity in Affective Disorders. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1-27.
[18] Burke, J.D., Wittchen, H.-U., Regier, D.A. and Sartorius, N. (1990) Extracting information from diagnostic interviews on co-occurrence of symptoms of anxiety and depression. In: Maser, J.D. and Cloninger, C.R., Eds., Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders, American Psychiatric Press, Inc., Washington D.C., 649-667.
[19] Judd, L.L. and Kunovac, J.L. (1998) Clinical characteristics and management of unipolar depressive disorders comorbid with neurological disorders. Neuropsychobiology, 37, 84-87. doi:10.1159/000026483
[20] Lishman, W.A. (1998) Organic psychiatry—The psychological consequences of cerebral disorder. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
[21] Hoehn, M. and Yahr, M.D. (1967) Parkinsonism: Onset, progression, and mortality. Neurology, 17, 427-442.
[22] Parkinson, J. (1817) An essay on the shaking palsy. Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, London.
[23] Bader, J.P. and Hell, D. (1998) Parkinson’s disease and depression. Fortschrittder-Neurologie-Psychiatrie ps, 66, 303-312.
[24] Beal, M.F. (1998) Excitotoxicity and nitric oxide in Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis. Annals of Neurology, 44, S110-S114
[25] Cummings, J.L. (1992) Depression and Parkinson’s disease: A review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 443-454.
[26] Cummings, J.L. (1993) The neuroanatomy of depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54, 14-20.
[27] Factor, S.A., Molho, E.S., Podskalny, G.D. and Brown, D. (1995) Parkinson’s disease: Drug-induced psychiatric states. Advances in Neurology, 65, 115-138.
[28] Guze, B.H. and Barrio, J.C. (1991) The etiology of depression in Parkinson’s disease patients. Psychosomatics, 32, 390-395. doi:10.1016/S0033-3182(91)72039-2
[29] Lieberman, A. (1998) Managing the neuropsychiatric symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Neurology, 6, S33-S38
[30] Marsh, L. (2000) Neuropsychiatric aspects of Parkinson’s disease. Psychosomatics, 41, 15-23. doi:10.1016/S0033-3182(00)71169-8
[31] Mayberg, H.S. and Solomon, D.H. (1995) Depression in Parkinson’s disease: A biochemical and organic viewpoint. Advance in Neurology, 65, 49-60.
[32] Mayeux, R. (1990) Parkinson’s disease: A review of cognitive and psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 3, 3-14.
[33] McNamara, M.E. (1991) Psychological factors affecting neurological conditions. Depression and stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and epilepsy. Psychosomatics, 32, 255-267. doi:10.1016/S0033-3182(91)72063-X
[34] Tom, T. and Cummings, J.L. (1998) Depression in Parkinson’s disease. Pharmacological characteristics and treatment. Drugs Aging, 12, 55-74. doi:10.2165/00002512-199812010-00006
[35] Haltenhof, H. and Schroter, C. (1994) Depression in Parkinson disease. A literature review (in German). Fortschritte der Neurologie—Psychiatrie, 62, 94-101. doi:10.1055/s-2007-996660
[36] American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd Edition, American Psychiatric Association Press, Washington DC.
[37] American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th Edition, American Psychiatric Association Press, Washington DC.
[38] Dooneief, G., Mirabello, E., Bell, K., Marder, K., Stern, Y. and Mayeux, R. (1992) An estimate of the incidence of depression in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Archives of Neurology, 49, 305-307. doi:10.1001/archneur.1992.00530270125028
[39] Murphy, J.M., Olivier, D.C., Monson, R.R., Sobol, A.M. and Leighton, A.H. (1988) Incidence of depression and anxiety: The stirling county study. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 534-540. doi:10.2105/AJPH.78.5.534
[40] Essen-Moller, E. and Hagnell, O. (1961) The frequency and risk of depression whitin a rural population group in scania. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 162, 28-32.
[41] Schiffer, R.B., Kurlan, R., Rubin, A. and Boer, S. (1988) Evidence for atypical depression in Parkinson’s disease. American of Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1020-1022.
[42] Starkstein, S.E., Preziosi, T.J., Bolduc, P.L. and Robinson, R.G. (1990) Depression in Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 178, 27-31. doi:10.1097/00005053-199001000-00005
[43] Mayeux, R., Williams, J.B., Stern, Y. and Cote, L. (1984) Depression and Parkinson’s disease. Advances in Neurology, 40, 241-250.
[44] Santamaria, J., Tolosa, E. and Valles, A. (1986) Parkinson’s disease with depression: A possible subgroup of idiopathic Parkinsonism. Neurology, 36, 1130-1133.
[45] Nilsson, F.M., Kessing, L.V., S?rensen, T.M., Andersen, P.K. and Bolwig, T.G. (2002) Major depressive disorder in Parkinson’s disease. A register-based study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 106, 202-211. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002.02229.x
[46] Nilsson, F.M., Kessing, L.V. and Bolwig, T.G. (2001) Increased risk of developing Parkinson’s disease for patients with major affective disorder: a register study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 104, 380-386. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2001.00372.x
[47] Shiba, M., Bower, J.H., Maraganore, D.M., McDonnell, S.K., Peterson, B.J., Ahlskog, J.E., Schaid, D.J. and Rocca, W.A. (2000) Anxiety disorders and depressive disorders preceding Parkinson’s disease: A case-control study. Movement Disorders, 15, 669-677. doi:10.1002/1531-8257(200007)15:4<669::AID-MDS1011>3.0.CO;2-5
[48] Schuurman, A.G., Van Den Akker, M., Ensinck, K.T., Metsemakers, J.F., Knottnerus, J.A., Leentjens, A.F. and Buntinx, F. (2002) Increased risk of Parkinson’s disease after depression: A retrospective cohort study. Neurology, 58, 1501-1504.
[49] Nilsson, F.M. (2010) Depression as a risk factor for Parkinson’s disease? www.neurology.org/cgi/eletters/58/10/15012002
[50] Gonera, E.G., Van’t Hof, M., Berger, H.J., Van Weel, C. and Horstink, M.W. (1997) Symptoms and duration of the prodromal phase in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 12, 871-876. doi:10.1002/mds.870120607
[51] Horn, S. (1974) Some psychological factors in Parkinsonism. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 37, 27-31. doi:10.1136/jnnp.37.1.27
[52] Gotham, A.M., Brown, R.G. and Marsden, C.D. (1986) Depression in Parkinson’s disease: A quantitative and qualitative analysis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 49, 381-389. doi:10.1136/jnnp.49.4.381
[53] Starkstein, S.E., Berthier, M.L., Bolduc, P.L., Preziosi, T.J. and Robinson, R.G. (1989) Depression in patients with early versus late onset of Parkinson’s disease. Neurology, 39, 1441-1445.
[54] Kostic, V.S., Filipovic, S.R., Lecic, D., Momcilovic, D., Sokic, D. and Sternic, N. (1994) Effect of age at onset on frequency of depression in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 57, 1265-1267. doi:10.1136/jnnp.57.10.1265
[55] Bieliauskas, L.A. and Glantz, R.H. (1989) Depression type in Parkinson disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11, 597-604. doi:10.1080/01688638908400918
[56] Brown, R.G., MacCarthy, B., Gotham, A.M., Der, G.J. and Marsden, C.D. (1988) Depression and disability in Parkinson’s disease: A follow-up of 132 cases. Psychological Medicine, 18, 49-55. doi:10.1017/S0033291700001872
[57] Ehmann, T.S., Beninger, R.J., Gawel, M.J. and Riopelle, R.J. (1990) Depressive symptoms in Parkinson’s disease: A comparison with disabled control subjects. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 3, 3-9. doi:10.1177/089198879000300102
[58] Warburton, J.W. (1967) Depressive symptoms in Parkinson patients referred for thalamotomy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 30, 368-370. doi:10.1136/jnnp.30.4.368
[59] Tandberg, E., Larsen, J.P., Aarsland, D. and Cummings, J.L. (1996) The occurrence of depression in Parkinson’s disease. A community-based study. Archives of Neurology, 53, 175-179. doi:10.1001/archneur.1996.00550020087019
[60] Hantz, P., Caradoc, D.G., Caradoc, D.T., Weatherall, M. and Dixon, G. (1994) Depression in Parkinson’s disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1010-1014.
[61] Huber, S.J., Paulson, G.W. and Shuttleworth, E.C. (1988) Depression in Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 1, 47-51.
[62] Starkstein, S.E., Mayberg, H.S., Leiguarda, R., Preziosi, T.J. and Robinson, R.G. (1992) A prospective longitudenal study of depression, cognitive decline, and physical impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 55, 377-382. doi:10.1136/jnnp.55.5.377
[63] Mahony, F. and Barthel, D. (1965) Functional evaluation: The Barthel index. Maryland State Medical Journal, 14, 61-65.
[64] Cantello, R., Gilli, M., Riccio, A. and Bergamasco, B. (1986) Mood changes associated with “end-of-dose deterioration” in Parkinson’s disease: A controlled study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 49, 1182-1190. doi:10.1136/jnnp.49.10.1182
[65] Cole, S.A., Woodard, J.L., Juncos, J.L., Kogos, J.L., Youngstrom, E.A. and Watts, R.L. (1996) Depression and disability in Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 8, 20-25.
[66] Mindham, R.H., Marsden, C.D. and Parkes, J.D. (1976) Psychiatric symptoms during l-dopa therapy for Parkinson’s disease and their relationship to physical disability. Psychological Medicine, 6, 23-33. doi:10.1017/S0033291700007467
[67] Starkstein, S.E. and Merello, M. (2002) Psychiatric and cognitive disorders in Parkinson’s disease. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
[68] Rickards, H. (2005) Depression in neurological disorders: Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 76, i48-i52. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2004.060426
[69] Fleminger, S. (1991) Left-sided Parkinson’s disease is associated with greater anxiety and depression. Psychological Medicine, 21, 629-638. doi:10.1017/S0033291700022261
[70] Beck, A.T., Ward, C.H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J. and Erbaugh, J. (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004
[71] Hamilton, M. (1960) A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 23, 56-62. doi:10.1136/jnnp.23.1.56
[72] Zung, W.K. (1965) A self-rating depression scale. Archives of General Psychiatry, 12, 63-70. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1965.01720310065008
[73] Montgomery, S.A. and Asberg, M. (1979) A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 382-389. doi:10.1192/bjp.134.4.382
[74] Levin, B.E., Llabre, M.M. and Weiner, W.J. (1988) Parkinson’s disease and depression: psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 51, 1401-1404. doi:10.1136/jnnp.51.11.1401
[75] Starkstein, S.E., Preziosi, T.J. and Forrester, A.W. and Robinson, R.G. (1990) Specificity of affective and autonomic symptoms of depression in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 53, 869-873. doi:10.1136/jnnp.53.10.869
[76] Starkstein, S.E. and Mayberg, H.S. (1993) Depression in Parkinson’s disease. In: Starkstein, S.E. and Robinson, R.G., Eds., Depression in Neurological Disease, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 97-116.
[77] Henderson, R., Kurlan, R., Kersun, J.M. and Como, P. (1992) Preliminary examination of the comorbidity of anxiety and depression in Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 4, 257-264.
[78] Menza, M.A., Robertson, H.D. and Bonapace, A.S. (1993) Parkinson’s disease and anxiety: Comorbidity with depression. Biological Psychiatry, 34, 465-470. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(93)90237-8
[79] Leentjens, A.F., Verhey, F.R., Luijckx, G.J. and Troost, J. (2000) The validity of the beck depression inventory as a screening and diagnostic instrument for depression in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 15, 1221-1224. doi:10.1002/1531-8257(200011)15:6<1221::AID-MDS1024>3.0.CO;2-H
[80] Bech, P. and Wermuth, L. (1998) Applicability and validity of the major depression inventory in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 52, 305-309.
[81] Fahim, S., Van-Duijn, C.M., Baker, F.M., Launer, L., Breteler, M.M.B., Schudel, W.J. and Hofman, A. (1998) A study of familial aggregation of depression, dementia and Parkinson’s disease. European Journal of Epidemiology, 14, 233-238. doi:10.1023/A:1007488902983
[82] Alcantara, L.A., Ortega, R., Morcillo, L. and Barcia, D. (1997) Concomitant bipolar disorder and Parkinson disease treated with clozapine. Psiquis, 18, 41-43.
[83] Kim, E., Zwil, A.S., McAllister, T.W., Glosser, D.S., Stern, M. and Hurtig, H. (1994) Treatment of organic bipolar mood disorders in Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 6, 181-184.
[84] Larmande, P., Palisson, E., Saikali, I. and Maillot, F. (1993) Disappearance of akinesia of Parkinson disease during a manic attack. Revista de Neurologia, 149, 557-558.
[85] Przedborski, S., Liard, A. and Hildebrand, J. (1992) Induction of mania by apomorphine in a depressed Parkinsonian patient. Movement Disorders, 7, 285-287. doi:10.1002/mds.870070318
[86] Yoash, G.R. (1991) Behavioral management of a bipolar Parkinson patient. Clinical Gerontology, 11, 69-73.
[87] Atre, V.N. and Jampala, V.C. (1988) Electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinsonism with affective disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 55-58. doi:10.1192/bjp.152.1.55
[88] Harsch, H.H., Miller, M. and Young, L.D. (1985) Induction of mania by L-dopa in a nonbipolar patient. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 5, 338-339.
[89] Ryback, R.S. and Schwab, R.S. (1971) Manic response to levodopa therapy. Report of a case. The New England Journal of Medicine, 285, 788-789. doi:10.1056/NEJM197109302851409
[90] Tune, L.E., Folstein, M., Rabins, P., Jayaram, G. and McHugh, P. (1982) Familial manic-depressive illness and familial Parkinson’s disease: A case report. Johns Hopkins Medical Journal, 151, 65-70.
[91] Heberlein, I., Ludin, H.P., Scholz, J. and Vieregge, P. (1998) Personality, depression, and premorbid lifestyle in twin pairs discordant for Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 64, 262-266. doi:10.1136/jnnp.64.2.262
[92] Bhatia, K.P., Daniel, S.E. and Marsden, C.D. (1993) Familial parkinsonism with depression: A clinicopathological study. Annals of Neurology, 34, 842-847. doi:10.1002/ana.410340614
[93] Aarsland, D., Ballard, C., Larsen, J.P. and McKeith, I. (2001) A comparative study of psychiatric symptoms in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson’s disease with and without dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16, 528-536. doi:10.1002/gps.389
[94] Arabia, G., Grossardt, B.R., Geda, Y.E., Carlin, J.M., Bower, J.H., Ahlskog, J.E., Maraganore, D.M. and Rocca, W.A. (2007) Increased risk of depressive and anxiety disorders in relatives of patients with Parkinson disease. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1385-1392. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1385
[95] Berkson, J. (1946) Limitations of theapplication of fourfold table analysis to hospital data. Biometrics Bulletin, 2, 47-53. doi:10.2307/3002000
[96] Andersen, B. (1969) Berkson’s fallacy. Nordisk Medicin, 81, 729-730.
[97] Hofman, A., Grobbee, D.E., De Jong, P.T. and Van Den Ouweland, F.A. (1991) Determinants of disease and disability in the elderly: The Rotterdam elderly study. European Journal Epidemiology, 7, 403-422. doi:10.1007/BF00145007
[98] Factor, S.A., Molho, E.S. and Brown, D.L. (1995) Combined clozapine and electroconvulsive therapy for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 7, 304-307.
[99] Wittchen, H.U. (2000) Epidemiological research in mental disorders: Lessons for the next decade of research— The NAPE Lecture 1999. Nordic Association for Psychiatric Epidemiology. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 101, 2-10. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.101001002.x
[100] Merikangas, K.R. (1990)Comorbidity for anxiety and depression: Review of family and genetic studies. In: Maser, J.D. and Cloninger, C.R., Eds., Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders, American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC, 331-348.
[101] Zahner, G.E.P., Hsieh, C.C. and Fleming, J.A. (1995) Introduction to epidemiologic research methods. In: Tsuang, M.T., Tohen, M. and Zahner, G.E.P., Eds., Textbook in Psychiatric Epidemiology, John Willey & Sons, New York, 23-54.
[102] Peyser, C.E. and Folstein, S.E. (1990) Huntington’s disease as a model for mood disorders. Clues from neuropathology and neurochemistry. Molecular and Chemical Neuropathology, 12, 99-119. doi:10.1007/BF03160062
[103] Winokur, G. (1997) All roads lead to depression: Clinically homogeneous, etiologically heterogeneous. Journal Affective Disorders, 45, 97-108. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00063-3
[104] Baxter, L.R., Jr., Schwartz, J.M., Phelps, M.E., Mazziotta, J.C., Guze, B.H., Selin, C.E., Gerner, R.H. and Sumida, R.M. (1989) Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 243-250. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810030049007
[105] Biver, F., Goldman, S., Delvenne, V., Luxen, A., De, M.V., Hubain, P., Mendlewicz, J. and Lotstra, F. (1994) Frontal and parietal metabolic disturbances in unipolar depression. Biological Psychiatry, 36, 381-388. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(94)91213-0
[106] Charlton, C.G. (1997) Depletion of nigrostriatal and forebrain tyrosine hydroxylase by S-adenosylmethionine: A model that may explain the occurrence of depression in Parkinson’s disease. Life Science, 61, 495-502. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(97)00409-8
[107] Mayeux, R. (1990) The “serotonin hypothesis” for depression in Parkinson’s disease. Advance Neurology, 53, 163-166.
[108] Angst, J. and Merikangas, K.R. (1997) The depressive spectrum: Diagnostic classification and course. Journal of Affective Disorders, 45, 31-40. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00057-8
[109] Winokur, G., Coryell, W., Keller, M., Endicott, J. and Leon, A. (1995) A family study of manic-depressive (bipolar I) disease. Is it a distinct illness separable from primary unipolar depression? Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 367-373. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950170041006
[110] Stahl, S.M. (1988) Basal ganglia neuropharma-cology and obsessive-compulsive disorder: The obsessive-compulsive disorder hypothesis of basal ganglia dysfunction. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 24, 370-374.
[111] Alexander, G.E., Crutcher, M.D. and DeLong, M.R. (1990) Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: Parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, “prefrontal” and “limbic” functions. Progress in Brain Research, 85, 119-146. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(08)62678-3
[112] Austin, M.P. and Mitchell, P. (1995) The anatomy of melancholia: Does frontal-subcortical pathophysiology underpin its psychomotor and cognitive manifestations? Psychological Medicine, 25, 665-672. doi:10.1017/S0033291700034929
[113] Mayberg, H.S. (1997) Limbic-cortical dysregulation: A proposed model of depression. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 9, 471-481.
[114] Duman, R.S., Heninger, G.R. and Nestler, E.J. (1997) A molecular and cellular theory of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 597-606. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830190015002
[115] Post, R.M. (1997) Molecular biology of behavior. Targets for therapeutics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 607- 608. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830190025003
[116] Kennedy, S.H., Javanmard, M. and Vaccarino, F.J. (1997) A review of functional neuroimaging in mood disorders: Positron emission tomography and depression. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42, 467-475.
[117] Cummings, J.L. (1993) Frontal-subcortical circuits and human behavior. Archives of Neurology, 50, 873-880. doi:10.1001/archneur.1993.00540080076020
[118] Mayberg, H.S., Starkstein, S.E., Sadzot, B., Preziosi, T., Andrezejewski, P.L., Dannals, R.F., et al. (1990) Selective hypometabolism in the inferior frontal lobe in depressed patients with Parkinson’s disease. Annals Neurology, 28, 57-64. doi:10.1002/ana.410280111
[119] Mayberg, H.S. (1994) Frontal lobe dysfunction in secondary depression. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 6, 428-442.
[120] Majoor-Krakauer, D., Ottman, R., Johnson, W.G. and Rowland, L.P. (1994) Familial aggregation of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, dementia, and Parkinson’s disease: Evidence of shared genetic susceptibility. Neurology, 44, 1872-1877.
[121] Robinson, R.G., Chemerinski, E. and Jorge, R. (1999) Pathophysiology of secondary depressions in the elderly. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 12, 128-136. doi:10.1177/089198879901200306
[122] Postuma, R.B., Gagnon, J.F. and Montplaisir, J. (2010) Clinical prediction of Parkinson’s disease: Planning for the age of neuroprotection. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 81, 1008-1013. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2009.174748
[123] Bech, P. (1993) Rating scales for psychopatology, health status and quality of life. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Hei-delberg, New York.
[124] Leentjens, A.F., Verhey, F.R., Lousberg, R., Spitsbergen, H. and Wilmink, F.W. (2000) The validity of the Hamilton and Montgomery-Asberg depression rating scales as screening and diagnostic tools for depression in Parkinson’s disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 644-649. doi:10.1002/1099-1166(200007)15:7<644::AID-GPS167>3.0.CO;2-L
[125] Keitner, G.I., Ryan, C.E., Miller, I.W., Kohn, R. and Epstein, N.B. (1991) 12-month outcome of patients with major depression and comorbid psychiatric or medical illness (compound depression). American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 345-350.
[126] Aarsland, D., Andersen, K., Larsen, J.P., Lolk, A., Nielsen, H. and Kragh-Sorensen, P. (2001) Risk of dementia in Parkinson’s disease: A community-based, prospective study. Neurology, 56, 730-736.
[127] Brandt-Christensen, M., Kvist, K., Nilsson, F.M., Andersen, P.K. and Kessing, L.V. (2006) Treatment with antidepressants and lithium is associated with increased risk of treatment with antiparkinson drugs: A pharmacoepidemiological study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 77, 781-783. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.083345
[128] Brandt-Christensen, M., Kvist, K., Nilsson, F.M., Andersen, P.K. and Kessing, L.V. (2007) Treatment with anti-parkinson and antidepressant drugs: A register-based, pharmaco-epidemio-logical study. Movement Disorders, 22, 2037-2042

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.