Materials Science s a nd Applications, 2011, 2, 1556-1563
doi:10.4236/msa.2011.211208 Published Online November 2011 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/msa)
Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the
Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel
Nurudeen A. Raji, Oluleke O. Oluwole
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Received July 27th, 2011; revised September 13th, 2011; accepted September 22nd, 2011.
ABSTRACT
Low carbon steel metal is used for the manufacture of nails. Steel wire with <0.3% C content is cold-drawn through a
series of drawing dies to reduce the diameter of the wire to the required diameter of the nails. A 0.12%w C steel wire
cold drawn progressively by 20%, 25%, 40% and 50% was investigated. The influence of the degree of cold drawing on
the mechanical properties of the carbon steel material were studied using the tensile test, impact test and hardness test
experiments in order to replicate the service condition of the nails. The tensile test was done on a Montanso® tensome-
ter to investigate the yield strength and the tensile strength of the material as the degree of deformation increases. An
Izod test was used to determine the impact toughness of the steel using the Hounsfield impact machine and the hardness
numbers were obtained for the different degrees of drawn deformation of the steel on the Brinnel tester. The study used
the stress-strain relationship of the tensile test experiment to study the effect of the degree of cold-drawing deformation
on the yield strength and tensile strength properties of the low carbon steel. The yield strength of the material was ob-
served to reduce with increasing degree of cold-drawing, an indication of reduction in the ductility and the tensile
strength of the material reduced with increasing degree of cold-drawn deformation. The ability of the material to resist
impact loads when nails are hammered reduced with increasing degree of drawn deformation as a result of strain
hardening of the material after the drawing operation. However the resilience of the material to further cold drawn
deformation increased with increasing degree of deformation as evident in the Brinnel hardness number which in-
creases with the degree of drawing deformation. This is an indication of the material’s approach to brittleness as the
degree of drawn deformation increases.
Keywords: Cold-Drawn, Deformation, Stress-Strain, Toughness, Yield Strength, Tensile Strength
1. Introduction
The mechanical properties of a material are those related
to its ability to withstand external mechanical forces.
Metals can undergo substantial permanent deformation.
This characteristic property of materials makes it feasible
to shaping. However, it imposes some limitations on the
engineering usefulness of such materials. Permanent de-
formation is due to process of shear where particles
change their neighbors. Nail manufacture from low car-
bon steels involve cold drawing deformation resulting in
plastic flow of the material. In drawing deformation, the
metal is strain hardened that is strength and hardness
increases with the degree of cold work whilst ductility
and impact values are lowered and unstable defect struc-
tures are retained after deformation [1]. This drawing
process is considered to be one of the most effective and
flexible methods to improve surface finish, to obtain pre-
cise dimension and to obtain the specified mechanical
properties of a product [2]. The structural changes which
occur during the cold deformation of metals include the
gradual stretching of the grains in the direction of prin-
cipal deformation and directional arrangement of the
crystallographic lattice [3,4]. The effect of such cold
work on the properties of polycrystalline structures have
been studied extensively [5-18]. The cold work process
of wire drawing consists of reducing the cross-section of
a wire by pulling the wire through series of conical dies
[19]. Metal wire drawing technology has been widely
used to manufacture fine wires [20,21]. When the defor-
mation amount is very significant, the wire generates
microstructure heterogeneities that may exhibit large
orientation gradients and stored energies [22]. Also the
microstructure presents a morphological texture where
the grains are lengthened along the wire drawing axis
[3,11,12]. Microstructure changes occurring during wire

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel1557
drawing can result in a record strength comparable with
that of quenched steel. Reference [23,24] investigated the
mechanical properties variation in drawn wires of
high-alloy steel and special alloys. The optimum ranges
of deformation were determined; the influence of the
distribution of partial reduction of area in the multi-
stager drawing and distressing on the distribution of lon-
gitudinal stresses was investigated. The non-uniformity
of properties on the cross-section of drawn wire was
found to depend individually on the grade of the drawn
material. The influence of back tension during wire
drawing process was also considered in [25]. An attempt
was made at finding the relationship between the critical
back tension value and the mechanical properties of a
material including optimization of the fine wire multi-
stage slip drawing process and variations of the back
tension value in successive deformation stages as well as
the measurements of the drawing force, metal pressure
on the die and back tension.
The strain hardening, also known as work hardening,
which results from the wire drawing process, is an in-
crement in internal energy associated with an increase in
the dislocation density as well as the density of point
defects, such as vacancies and interstitials [26,27]. This
strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements
within the crystal structure of the material. Strengthening
occurring at large strain plastic deformations has been
discussed both experimentally [28] and theoretical [29]
in search of the relevant microscopic strengthening proc-
esses. In order to improve the understanding of the hard-
ening mechanism and the microstructure–behavior rela-
tionships, [30] presented results of the evolution of
stress-strain curves with the austenitic grain size through
reverse straining test. Strain hardening is the phenome-
non whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and str-
onger as it is plastically deformed [31]. This phenome-
non is explained on the basis of dislocation-dislocation
strain field interactions. When metals are plastically de-
formed, some fraction of the deformation is retained in-
ternally and the remainder is dissipated as heat. The ma-
jor portion of this stored energy is as strain energy asso-
ciated with dislocations.
Influence of cold work and aging on the mechanical
properties of Cu-bearing HSLA steel was studied by [32].
It was concluded that cold working and subsequent aging
enhances the hardness and tensile strength (Su) of the
material but significantly deteriorate the ductility and
impact energy. The poor impact energy is a consequence
of inhomogeneous deformation at coherent particle sites
and high stress concentrations at dislocation-precipitate
junction and dislocation cell walls. Reference [12] inves-
tigated the impact of cold reduction size and annealing
on the mechanical properties of HSLA steel. It was con-
firmed that by a suitable combination of size of previous
cold deformation and parameters of annealing properties,
it is possible to influence considerably a complex of me-
chanical properties of particular strips of the steel.
Mechanical properties distributions on the cross sec-
tions of drawn products were investigated by [33]. Spe-
cific effective strain non-uniformities were found to in-
fluence the distribution of mechanical properties in the
final product of the drawn bars. It was noticed that the
non-uniformity of mechanical properties in bars before
deformation and different character of strain hardening of
the bars after deformation were contributing factors to
the influenced mechanical properties of the resulting
product. It is also evident that the rate of deformation as
defined by the die angle contributes to the state of the
non-uniformity of the bar. Reference [34] investigated
the influence of die angle on the drawing parameters es-
pecially drawing stress during the drawing of square
twisted wire used for twisted nails. Conditions were for-
mulated for the stable deformation of the wires. An im-
portant characteristic of the drawing process is the die
semi-angle which influences the drawing forces, the lu-
brication in the process and also the mechanical proper-
ties of the final product [26]. Plastic deformation is con-
trolled by the interaction of dislocations with the host
lattice, the applied stress, and with other defects such as
other dislocations, solutes, grain boundaries and precipi-
tates [33].
The stress-strain curve is the usual tool for the meas-
urement of mechanical properties of materials. Material
properties such as the modulus of elasticity, the yield
strength, the tensile strength, modulus of resilience and
modulus of toughness are usually estimated from the
curve. The stress-strain curve is characterized by three
regions; the elastic region, the yield region and the plas-
tic flow region. Elasticity is the property of complete and
immediate recovery from an imposed displacement on
release of the load, and the elastic limit is the value of
stress at which the material experiences a permanent re-
sidual strain that is not lost on unloading. The yield stress,
denoted σY is the stress needed to induce plastic deforma-
tion in the material. During yield and the plastic-flow
regime following yield, the material flows with negligi-
ble change in volume; increases in length are offset by
decreases in cross-sectional area. Ductile metals often
have true stress-strain relations that can be described by a
simple power-law relation of the form:
n
tt
A   
where t

is the true stress, t is the true strain and the
parameter n is called the strain hardening parameter,
useful as a measure of the resistance to necking, n is the
strain hardening exponent and A is the strength coeffi-


Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel 1558
cient.
Recent assessment of locally produced nails concluded
that nails manufactured in Nigeria were produced to
specification [35]. The assessment was based on two
experimentations; the load-extension test and lateral
bending test due to lateral loading. It became important
to consider possible lateral deflection (buckling) of the
nail due to impact loading which usually result from the
hammering action of driving the nail into the work-piece.
Field observation has shown that some of the nails pro-
duced locally buckles due to high ductility under such
impact load or sometimes simply fracture due to brittle-
ness of the nail. This paper presents a study of the influ-
ence of degree of drawing deformation on the strength
and toughness of low carbon steel used for the manufac-
ture of plain nails. The intent is to examine the degree of
toughness of the nails to impact load due to hammering
of the nail in service. It is evident that the more the
toughness of a material, the more the impact loading the
material can sustain. Stress-strain curves are important
graphical measure of a material’s mechanical properties
and are extensively used for the properties characteriza-
tion of the low carbon steel in this study.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
The materials were commercial available low carbon
steels with different degrees of cold drawing at 20%,
25%, 40%, and 55% as applicable for the manufacture of
4inches, 3 inches, 2(1/2) inches and 2 inches nails re-
spectively. The chemical composition of the cold-drawn
low carbon steel is presented in Table 1. Three basic
mechanical properties tests were carried out to determine
the properties of the drawn steel in service. These include;
the tensile test, impact toughness test, and the Brinnel
hardness test. For the purpose of these experiments, three
samples for each degree of the drawn steel were prepared
for each of the experiment making a total of forty-five
samples. The samples studied were prepared to size as
follows:
1) Tensile test-samples
 = 5.4 mm, l = 32.7 mm for
control specimen;
 = 5.0 mm, l = 33.7 mm for 20%
cold-drawn;
 = 4.0 mm, l = 33.6 mm for 25% cold-
drawn;
 = 3.3 mm, l = 33.5 mm for 40% cold-drawn;
and
 = 3.0 mm, l = 35.5 mm for 55% cold drawn.
2) Impact toughness test samples; 45˚ angle V-notch
Table 1. Chemical composition of the as-received steel w ire
material (wt%).
C Si Mn P Fe
0.12 0.18 0.14 0.7 98.86
of 2 mm depth is impressed in each of the sample of  =
5.4 mm, l = 50 mm, for 0% cold-drawn;
 = 5.0 mm, l =
50 mm for 20% cold-drawn;
 = 4.0 mm, l = 50 mm for
25% cold-drawn;
 = 3.3 mm, l = 50 mm for 40%
cold-drawn;
 = 3.0 mm, l = 50 mm for 55% cold drawn.
3) Hardness test samples
 = 5.4 mm, l = 30 mm for
0% cold-drawn;
 = 5.0 mm, l = 30 mm for 20%
cold-drawn;
 = 4.0 mm, 30 mm for 25% cold-drawn; 
= 3.3 mm, 30 mm for 40% cold-drawn;
 = 3.0 mm, 30
mm for 55% cold drawn,
2.2. Methodology
The investigation of the mechanical properties consisted
of the following stages;
2.2.1. Tensile Test
The tensile test was done on a Montanso® tensometer
available at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.
Table 2 shows the tensile values of the material used at
different degree of deformation. The test specimens were
mounted on the tensometer one after the other and sub-
jected to tension. The tensile force is recorded as a funcz
under displacement control, so as to allow a complete
recording of the load-displacement plot up to final failure.
The engineering measure of the stress and strain was
determined from the measure of the load and deflection
using the original cross-section area o
A
and length o
L
[36] as;
,
ee
oo
P
A
L

   (1)
where e

is the engineering stress, e is the engineer-
ing strain, P is the load applied, is the metal elonga-
tion due to applied load, o

δ
L
is the original length of the
metal under the tensile force. A more direct measure of
the material’s response is obtained from the true stress-
strain curve up to the UTS limit for the different degree
of drawn deformation. A measure of the strain often used
in conjunction with the true stress is expressed as follows
[36],
Table 2. Tensile test value s.
% Original Original
deformation length of
wire, lo(mm)
dia. of wire,
Do(mm)
Final length
of wire, lf(mm)
Final dia. of
wire, Df(mm)
Control
specimen 32.7 5.4 40.2 2.4
20 33.7 5 37.4 4.8
25 33.6 4 35.5 3.8
40 33.5 3.3 36.6 1.6
55 35.5 3 37 1.7

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel1559
ln
t
o
L
L
  (2)
The true stress-strain relationship was thus obtained
from the engineering stress-strain up to the strain at
which necking begins as;
 
1,ln1
te ete
    

S
i
(3)
The true stress-extension ratio plot was used to deter-
mine the extension ratio at yield Y, and the yield stress

Y of the drawn steel at the different degrees of cold-
drawn deformation as shown in Figure 2.
2.2.2. Impact Test
A v-notch is cut on each specimen using a a Hounsfield
notching machine ensuring that the notch screw is set at a
depth of 2mm so that the cutter just touches the test piece.
Each test piece is broken with a pendulum on the Houns-
field balanced impact machine and the energy absorbed
in fracturing is measured. The test is performed on three
different samples for each of the degree of cold-drawn
deformation and the average of the measurement was
taken.
2.2.3. Brinnel Hardness Test
Each specimen for the hardness test is filed to create flat
surface on the nail shank. The flat surface is then pol-
ished with emery paper to obtain a very smooth surface
required of the test. The specimens are then supported on
a Brinnel tester and a hardened spherical ball of 10 mm
diameter is forced at a load of 750 kg into the surface of
each specimen for 10 seconds. The diameter of the in-
denter impression is measured and the measurement is
converted into the Brinell-hardness number on the Brin-
nel tester conversion table.
2.2.4. Pure Reversal Bending Fatigue Limit
Computations
This stress simulates the stress that can be endured by the
steel during continuous bending hammering to straighten
the nail after it has bent. The fatigue limits were com-
puted from the relationship applicable when
(1380 N/mm2) [37,38] as is the case in the
tests conducted. Where is the fatigue limit
0.5
eb u
S
200
u
Sks
eb
S
3. Results and Discussion
After the analysis of the mechanical properties of the
cold-drawn steel it may be reported that the mechanical
properties of the cold-drawn steel is substantially influ-
enced by the degree of cold deformation as applicable for
nail manufacture.
3.1. Tensile Test
Figures 1(a)-1(e) show the flow curves for the different
degrees of drawing deformation. They show the engi-
neering stress-strain and the true stress strain curves for
the material at different degrees of cold drawn deforma-
tion. It was observed from the figures that the stress
needed to increase the strain beyond the proportionality
limit in the material continued to rise beyond the propor-
tionality limit indicating an increasing stress requirement
to continue straining. The increasing stress requirement
measures the strain hardening level of the metal as the
degree of drawn deformation increases.
Yield strength is the amount of stress at which plastic
deformation becomes noticeable and significant in the
material. In the Figures 1(a)-1(e) there is no definite
point on the curve where elastic strain ends and plastic
strain begins; the yield strength is chosen to be that
strength when a definite amount of plastic strain has oc-
curred. Figures 2(a)-2(e) show constructions for the true
stress-extension ratio plots used in determining the ex-
tension ratio at yield. The different yield strengths ob-
tained for the low carbon steel at different degrees of
cold-drawn deformation is as tabulated in Table 3. The
yield strength of the material reduces with increasing
degree of cold-drawing, an indication of reduction in the
ductility of the material making the material approach the
brittle stage due to strain hardening effect of the drawing
operation. The tensile strength which gives indication of
the materials, such as its hardness is a good measure of
the material brittle nature as the degree of drawn defor-
mation increases. The Table 3 also shows that the tensile
strength of the material reduced as cold-drawing in-
creased, indicating an approach of the material to brittle
nature.
3.2. Impact Toughness
The energy absorption of the material at different degree
of deformation as measured from the impact toughness
test is as shown in Table 3. The impact toughness is the
energy needed to completely fracture the material and it
reduces with increasing degree of cold-drawn deforma-
tion. Materials showing good impact resistance are gen-
erally those with high moduli of toughness. This implied
that as the degree of drawn deformation increases, the
ability of the material to resist impact loading reduces.
This could be said to account for the buckling or sudden
fracture of some of the nails when hammered in service.
3.3. Material Hardness and Fatigue Strength
Table 3 also shows that the hardness index number of
the material increases as the degree of deformation in-
creases. This implies that the hardness of the cold-drawn
low carbon steel increases with increasing degree of
cold-drawn deformation. This is in agreement with the
strain hardening resulting frm the drawing process of o

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel 1560
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.00 0.50 1.00
EngineeringStress(kg/sq.
(mm))
True Stress (kg/sq(mm))
Stress (N/sq. Mm)
Strain
(a)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0.000.100.20 0.30
EngineeringStress(kg/sq.
(mm))
True Stress (kg/sq(mm))
Stress (N/sq. Mm)
Strain
‐10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0.000.10 0.200.30
Engineering
Stress (kg/sq.
(mm))
Strain
Stress (N/sq. Mm)
(b) (c)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0.000.10 0.200.30 0.40
EngineeringStress
(kg/sq. (mm))
True Stress
(kg/sq(mm))
Strain
Stress (N/sq. Mm)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.150.20
EngineeringStress(kg/sq.
(mm))
True Stress (kg/sq(mm))
Stress (N/sq. Mm)
Strain
(d) (e)
Figure 1. Stress-strain curves. (a) Control specimen; (b) 20% deformation; (c) 25% deformation; (d) 40% deformation; (e)
55% deformation.
4. Conclusions
the steel which reduces the diameter of the steel wire to
the required diameter of the nails. The buckling and brittle natures of some nails in service
are established to be due to the overall effect of the nail
manufacturing process of drawing. The toughness of the
low carbon steel used for the nail manufacture reduces as
the degree of drawing deformation increases. The ductil-
ity of the material also reduces with increasing degree of
rawing deformation. Improving the toughness of the
The ability of the nails to withstand continuous ham-
mering reversal bending stresses (fatigue) when trying to
straighten bent nails is reduced as well with increasing
cold–drawing using the commonly used relationship,
between fatigue strength (Seb) and ultimate tensile
strength (Su), Seb= 0.5 Su. d

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel1561
‐10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.52.0 2.5
TRUE STRESS
Extension r a tio, 
True stress, 
t
O

Y
=1.65
o
Y
=80N/sq. Mm
(a)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
TRUE STRESS
O

Y
=1.22
Extension ratio, 
True stre ss, 
t
O
Y
=70N/sq. Mm
‐10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0.00.5 1.0 1.5
TRUE STRESS
O
Y
=60N/sq. Mm
Extension ratio, 
True stre ss, 
t
O

Y
=1 .20
(b) (c)
‐5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0.0 0.5 1.01.5
TRUE STRESS
Extension ratio, 
True stress, 
t
OY=1. 2 5
O

Y=44.5N/sq. Mm
‐5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0.951.00 1.051.10 1.15 1.20
TRUE STRESS
Extension ratio, 
True stress, 
t
O

Y
=1.1 0
O
Y
=40N/sq. Mm
(d) (e)
Fig ure 2. Eff ect of draw i ng defor m ati on on yi eld st re ngt h of l ow carbon steel. (a) Control specimen; (b) 20% deformation; (c)
25% deformation; (d) 40% deformation; (e) 55% deformation.
Table 3. Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, brinnel hardness, pure reversal bending fatigue strength and energy ab-
sorption of the nails at different degrees of drawn deformation.
% Deformation Yield Strength, sy
(N/sq·mm)
Tensile Strength (UTS),
(N/mm2)
Relative Impact
Toughness
Brinnel Hardness,
HB
Pure Reversal bending
Fatigue Limit, (N/mm2)
Control Specimen 80 670.88 31.8 209.67 335.44
20 70 578.79 15.4 230.00 289.40
25 60 510.12 7.07 281.67 255.06
40 44.5 392.40 3.97 315.67 196.20
55 40 382.59 3.57 336.00 191.30

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel 1562
low carbon steel without sacrificing the ductility of the
material is a primary concern towards improving the
quality of nail locally manufactured. The stress needed to
increase the strain beyond the proportionality limit in the
material continues to rise beyond the proportionality
limit indicating an increasing stress requirement to con-
tinue straining as also evident in the increasing hardness
of the material as the degree of drawn deformation in-
creases. The degree of drawn deformation affects the
yield strength of the material as evident in the flow curve
analysis. The difference in yield strength was attributed
to the strain hardening, resulting from the different de-
grees of drawn deformation.
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