Knowledge and Practices of Authentic Assessment in Junior High Schools ()
1. Introduction
The major attribute of Social Studies as an integrated subject is to aid learners in the application of relevant ideas, concepts, principles, generalisations, theories, skills, and methodologies from different disciplines to describe or explain a phenomenon and solve a personal or societal problem intelligently and holistically. The intent of Social Studies, therefore, is to help students create meaning and order out of the world in which they find themselves. Social Studies deal with the interaction of people and people’s environment and target the active participation of individuals in the democratic process [1] . The subject is an integrated field of social and human sciences that adds to the development of individual knowledge and skills and the development of a democratic society [2] . It aims at educating citizens to be active and adapted to social life, aware of their rights and duties, solve problems, and become good citizens [3] [4] [5] . The subject is made up of earth-related events, causes and results of the events; citizenship rights, duties, and responsibilities; the interaction with the social and physical environment of the learner which adds to the learner as a social, active, and participatory citizen [5] , by bringing individual-specific characteristics of collecting.
This means, therefore, in addition to basic facts and skills, Social Studies education must give to learners’ complex thinking and behaviours. Social Studies education must relate to the outcomes intended to achieve and in addition help learners to produce or practice their experiences in similar or different situations beyond the classroom [6] . Authentic assessment is in line with the assessment techniques recommended for Social Studies teachers in Junior High Schools in Ghana. Authentic Assessment is positioned at restoring the balance among assessment, curriculum, and instruction [7] in Social Studies.
Authentic assessment is a form of assessment based on student practices in which real-world performances are repeated [8] . Authentic assessment seeks to encourage or develop students’ abilities to be able to deal with real-world problems or phenomena through case studies, problem-based inquiries, experimentations, scenario-based questions, live cases, incomplete solution sets, and surveys [9] . Reference [10] grouped authentic assessment tools, tasks, or strategies into three. First, there are graphic organisers and concept mapping which help learners to apply visual representations of mental maps to sequence, compare, contrast, and classify abstract ideas into visible and concrete forms. Learners apply their knowledge about cause and effect to diagrams, flowcharts, correlational diagrams, concept maps, idea web/graphic organisers, geographic maps, and mind maps in solving problems.
Second, there are performance products which are tasks designed to measure both the process and product quality of learners. It provides learners with opportunities to construct their knowledge in real-world contexts. Information schematisation and mastery of educational experience are enhanced. Performance products include experiments, surveys, essays, storyboard reports, critiques, projects, research reports, grant applications, career plans, exhibits, biographies, and autobiographies.
Third, there are the live performance and presentations that have established criteria and performance indicators (scoring rubrics) which learners must do to demonstrate that they have learned at a specific level (meta-cognition). The most important assessment strategy here is learners’ self-assessment followed by teacher assessment and an opportunity for learners and facilitators to interact over assessment findings. Live performances and presentations include interviews, controversial issues, student-led conferences, prepared and extemporaneous speeches, demonstrations, and games.
Reference [11] defines authentic assessment as “engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance, in which students must use knowledge to fashion performances effectively and creatively”. The tasks are either a replica of or analogous to the kinds of problems faced by adult citizens and consumers or professionals in the field [12] cited in [9] . Therefore, [13] sees authentic assessment as a significant meaningful assessment of the learners’ learning outcomes for the affective, psychomotor, and cognitive domains. Reference [14] also calls for Social Studies assessment to be well aligned with its major goals and more complete in the range of the objectives addressed. The nature and aims of the subject as described set the stage for a classroom assessment of its learning outcomes in context. Practicing authentic assessment in junior high schools will help stimulate teachers to develop an approach that rewards genuine effort and in-depth learning rather than measuring luck, to aid learners to construct meaning that will be sustained in the long term. The extent to which authentic assessment approaches help students to apply concepts outside the school rather than the idea to teach students to the test can never be overlooked [15] .
However, assessment in Ghana is dominated by traditional testing from the classroom to the national level with not many formal authentic assessment training programmes for teachers [16] . Available studies or literature conducted on authentic assessment seem to be focused on some aspects. For example, [17] focused on students’ perceptions of authentic assessment in public universities but not lecturers’ perceptions. Also, [18] investigated teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment in the Central region without looking at the authentic assessment strategies teachers employ. Besides, [19] looked at Social Studies teachers’ practices of authentic assessment within the Central Region. Their study failed to show the teachers’ knowledge of the use of authentic assessment practices.
This shows a knowledge gap in terms of literature since some areas or aspects of authentic assessment are not fully covered or researched in Social Studies. Furthermore, these studies were concentrated in the Central Region which also shows some geographical gap since it appears no studies have been conducted on teachers’ knowledge and practice of authentic assessment in the Eastern Region. Hence, to fill the gap in literature and location, this study seeks to investigate Social Studies teachers’ knowledge and practices of authentic assessment in junior high schools in the Ayensuano District in the Eastern Region of Ghana. This study is essential to bring to the fore teachers’ knowledge and practices of assessment in general. The findings of this study will inform Social Studies teachers about the value and impact of authentic assessment on their instructional practices, students’ performance, and educational goals.
1.1. Research Question
What is Social Studies teachers’ knowledge in authentic assessment practice?
1.2. Hypothesis
Ho: There is no significant gender difference in Social Studies teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment.
H1: There is a significant gender difference in Social Studies teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment.
2. Literature Review
In Singapore, [20] studied authentic assessment practices and conventional assessment to examine the quality of teacher assignments and students’ work. Reference [20] used two sets of criteria and scoring rubrics for the training of expert teachers to judge the quality of assignments (projects and learning logs) and students’ work. Samples of teachers’ assignments and students’ work were collected in English, Social Studies, Science, and Mathematics on a random stratified sample of 30 high schools. Their study showed that the inter-rater reliability of expert teachers scored was very high. There were significant differences in the authentic intellectual quality of teachers’ assignments by subject area for all grade levels. Similarly, the differences in authentic assessment quality for students’ work were significant and varied in the schools used for the study. The quality of teachers’ assignment tasks and student work showed a strong correlation and were significant in all subject areas. It was again revealed more intellectually demanding tasks for the students, were more likely to generate output or artifacts which were judged to be of high quality.
Also, [16] investigated authentic assessment practices of Social Studies teachers in senior high schools in Ghana. The purpose of their study was to find the extent to which social studies teachers apply (practice) authentic assessment in their assessment procedures. A descriptive survey, simple random sampling, and semi-structured interviews were employed in their study. The study revealed that authentic assessment as a classroom assessment strategy does have a place in Senior High Schools in Ghana but is limited by policies, time, resources, and assessment methods employed. Besides, [21] studied teachers’ capacity and knowledge in the authentic assessment of five Grade 6 teachers from a charter school. Their main objective was to use a critical inquiry approach to build teachers’ capacity in authentic assessment and assessment for learning through school-based professional learning communities. They employed focus groups, analysis of assessment tasks and associated student work samples, and teacher and student interviews. This study also employs teacher interviews in gathering data. Their findings revealed that teachers have rich professional conversations over the features of authentic assessment tasks, the criteria for authentic assessment, and the identification of specific instructional objectives using the Structure of Observed Learning Outcome taxonomy. Also, they found that teachers have a good understanding of authentic assessment and assessment for learning, which is beneficial in teaching and learning.
Further, [22] study titled “Authentic assessment increased academic achievement and attitudes towards the educational measurement of prospective teachers” has the objective of finding the effect of authentic assessment on the attitudes of prospective teachers toward academic achievement, their attitudes toward educational measurement and the opinions of prospective teachers on authentic assessment in Turkey. Ozan employed a mixed method on fifty prospective teachers in an experimental group and forty-five prospective teachers in a control group his research method will be the same for this study including the use of the interview. Reference [22] study revealed that qualitative data obtained from unstructured diaries and semi-structured interviews showed that prospective teachers’ opinions about authentic assessment are positive. The teachers hold the knowledge that authentic assessment combines theory and practice and is an important approach that helps them to gain characteristics such as professional experience and self-confidence. This is in line with the findings of [23] that prospective teachers had positive opinions about authentic assessment, which helps them to actively participate in lessons, and that authentic tasks provided entertaining, motivating, and lasting information to students.
Furthermore, [24] did a study on the challenges in using authentic assessment in 21st-century English as a Second Language (ESL). A case study was used in conjunction with purposive sampling and semi-structured interviews. Their study revealed that teachers use practical and easy-to-be-carried-out authentic assessments kinds such as quizzes, songs, and an immediate feedback system. The teachers believe that quizzes help them to continuously check students’ progress. They, therefore, administer various types of quizzes ranging from paper and pencil quizzes to online versions which students enjoy and their content knowledge showed improvement. Also, the teachers revealed that they can gauge students’ learning and they (teachers) were able to adopt an immediate feedback system in the classroom which provided positive output in their work and resulted in students being motivated to learn the target language. These findings are of relevance to this study since this study seeks to find authentic assessment knowledge, practices, and strategies used by social studies teachers.
Finally, [25] explore teachers’ perceptions and practices of authentic (performance-based) assessment at the basic school level in Ghana. A descriptive survey design was adopted with an accessible population estimated at 1000. However, 286 respondents were sampled for data collection using purposive and accidental sampling techniques. A 10-item questionnaire with r = 0.90 was used to collect data which were analysed using mean and standard deviation. The findings of the study revealed that most teachers at the basic school level have positive perceptions of authentic assessment. Also, it was revealed that most teachers practise authentic (performance-based) assessments at the basic school level. They recommended that the education agencies and heads of schools should periodically organise in-service training, workshops, and seminars to equip teachers with contemporary issues on authentic assessments like computer-assisted programmes. There is, therefore, the need to review what has happened over the period after the recommendation.
3. Research Methods
The explanatory sequential design under the mixed method was adopted. [26] stated that the explanatory design (also called sequential design) is a two-stage mixed-method design. This design first begins with the collection and analysis of quantitative data and is followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data. In this regard, the researcher used a questionnaire to collect data and analyze it. Based on the issues emerging, the researcher designed an interview guide to collect other data from the field. This design was used to triangulate the quantitative data with that the qualitative data, to get a better picture and understanding of the study. More, this design was adopted because it is easy to execute in the sense that it collects one type of data at a time. In addition, it also allows the readers to get a clear picture and better understanding of the findings as confirmed by [26] . All one hundred and twenty-seven teachers who teach Social Studies in the junior high schools in the Ayensuano District were used for data collection. Respondents were selected due to the fact that authentic assessment which is a form of assessment is well recommended for Social Studies education, since the subject is issue base in nature. Hence, authentic assessment is part of the curriculum requirement for Social Studies teachers, to help teachers teach and assess students in higher level thinking, which will further assist learners to solve the persistent and contemporary social issues. However, the researcher observed junior high school Social Studies examination papers and found that learners perform poorly in answering mete-cognitive questions.
Therefore, census method was used to determine the participation of all Social Studies teachers in the study. Reference [27] recommends the usage of the census method when the population is less than two hundred. A questionnaire and interview were used for the study. These instruments were used for triangulation purposes. Thus, to overcome the limitations associated with each of the instruments. A questionnaire containing 50 items was used to collect data from the respondents. A questionnaire is the main means of collecting quantitative primary data in a standardised way so that the data are internally consistent and coherent for analysis [28] . The questionnaire was used in this study because it allowed the researcher to collect a large amount of data within a shorter period and it is less expensive. Also, it enabled the researcher to protect the privacy and confidentiality [29] of the respondents’ responses since their names or identity were not captured on the questionnaire. The questionnaire was organised under four sections where section A covered the demographic data of the respondents while sections B to D dealt with questions that sought answers to the research questions/hypothesis. The questionnaire was close-ended items on a 5 and 4-point Likert scale types “Very Inadequate, Inadequate, Fairly Adequate, Adequate or Very Adequate”; “Most of the time, Occasionally, Rarely or Never”. The Likert scale was considered by the researcher because it is one of the most universal methods for gathering survey data, is understood easily, and is used to gather quick responses from respondents.
Besides the questionnaire, a semi-structured interview guide was used to gather data from some of the teachers to probe further into some issues on which the questionnaire was unable to obtain in-depth information. According to [30] , an interview is the exchange of views between persons conversing about a theme of mutual interest. It is more powerful in eliciting narrative data that allows researchers to investigate people’s views in greater depth [30] . Nine interviews were scheduled with and undertaken one-on-one with one participant from each circuit (nine circuits) school during the weekends (Fridays). Interviewees were given prior notice for them to prepare themselves. The interview started on 11th February 2022 and ended on 11th March 2022. The interview was conducted by the researcher personally. Each interview spanned twenty to thirty minutes. Nine teachers were interviewed based upon [31] methodological study (code saturation on interview data). They revealed that, the point at which no additional information or issues are identified was achieved at nine interviews. All nine interviews were undertaken within five weekends. COVID-19 health and safety protocols were adhered to. The interview enables interviewees to speak in their voice and express their thoughts and feelings [32] . The interview also allowed some level of flexibility for the respondents to express themselves in detail concerning the topic under study [33] . The interview guide items were designed based on the five research questions.
The questionnaire was subject to face and content validity, and a reliability co-efficient alpha value of 0.70 was obtained for research question one, 0.91 for two, and 0.73 for research question three. A reliability coefficient of 0.7 is considered high and reliable as claimed by [34] . The questionnaire was administered to the 127 social studies teachers in the district with the help of six field assistants who were teachers in the district but not teaching social studies. This was after we had fulfilled ethical issues and sought permission from the district education directorate and various head teachers in the 83 junior high schools in the district. One hundred and nineteen questionnaires were retrieved given a return rate of 94 per cent. A seventy per cent return rate is an acceptable return rate according to [35] . The data obtained was cleaned and fed into IBM SPSS (version 22). Descriptive and inferential statistical tools were used to analyze data into frequencies and percentages, mean and standard deviation, and an independent sample t-test. Data from the interview were transcribed and coded based on themes. Pre-set themes were used to generate the transcript (text) data based on the research questions/hypotheses and discussed.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Results
Teachers quantified their knowledge of authentic assessment using Very Inadequate, Inadequate, Fairly Adequate, Adequate, and Very Adequate. The mean ranges for the statements were scored as (Very Inadequate = 1, Inadequate = 2, Fairly Adequate = 3, Adequate = 4, and Very Adequate = 5). A criterion value of 3.0 was established for the scale. To obtain the criterion value (CV = 3.0), the scores were added together and divided by the number scale (5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 15/5 = 3.0). To understand the mean scores, items on the knowledge of authentic assessment that scored means of 1.00 - 1.80 were concluded to be Very Inadequate, 1.90 - 2.60 to be Inadequate whilst 2.70 - 3.40 denoted Fairly Adequate. Additionally, 3.5 - 4.20 signified Adequate whilst 4.30 - 5.00 indicated Very Adequate. Standard deviations measured the dispersion of the responses as they were gathered from the respondents. A standard deviation of 1.00 and below denoted homogeneity in responses, whereas a standard deviation of more than 1.00 denoted diversity in the responses of respondents.
Again, teachers rated their practices and strategies employed in authentic assessment using Never, Rarely, Occasionally, and Most of the Time. The mane ranges for the statements were scored as (Never = 1, Rarely = 2, Occasionally = 3, and Most of the Time = 4). A criterion value of 2.5 was established for the scale. To obtain the criterion value (CV = 2.5), the scores were added together and divided by the number scale (4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 10/4 = 2.5). To understand the mean scores, items on the authentic assessment practices and strategies that scored means of 1.00 - 1.75 were concluded to be Never, 1.75 - 2.50 to be Rarely whilst 2.50 - 3.25 denoted Occasionally. Additionally, 3.25 - 4.00 signified Most of the Time. Also, a standard deviation of 1.00 and below denoted homogeneity in responses, whereas a standard deviation of more than 1.00 denoted diversity in the responses of respondents.
Research Question 1: What is Social Studies teachers’ knowledge in authentic assessment practice in Junior High Schools?
Table 1 shows that the majority of the respondents agreed that they have heard about the concept of authentic assessment since they started teaching. This is evident from the computed values of frequency and percentages as 89 (74.8%) was “YES” compared to 30 (25.2%) which was “NO”. This confirms the findings of [18] who indicated that authentic assessment as a classroom assessment strategy has practiced in schools in Ghana. Also, 83 (69.7%) of the respondents revealed that they have had training on the authentic assessment before using it in their instructional activities, whereas 36 (30.3%) said otherwise. Concerning the level at which the respondents had training on authentic assessment,
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Table 1. Social Studies teachers’ knowledge in authentic assessment practice.
Source: Field survey (2022).
15 (12.6%) had theirs at the teacher training college, 48 (40.3%) at the university whilst 20 (16.8%) had theirs at the G. E. S workshop. Also, 36 (30.3%) of the respondents revealed that they have not had any training on authentic assessment. About the question on whether the respondents had attended any in-service course or workshop connected with authentic assessment, 57 (47.9%) of the respondents said “YES” whereas 62 (52.1%) said “NO”. This shows that the majority of the respondents have had no in-service course or workshop on authentic assessment since they started teaching Social Studies. Concerning the number of times respondents had attended in-service training or workshops on authentic assessment, 22 (18.5%) of the respondents had attended once, 19 (16%) had attended twice, and 11 (9.2%) had attended thrice. Also, 5 (4.2%) had attended four kinds of authentic assessment workshops whereas 62 (52.1%) respondents gave non-attainable responses. Table 1 revealed that 25 (21%) of the respondents have had an average duration of less than a week of in-service training on authentic assessment, whilst 20 (16.8%) have had an average duration of a week. Also, 8 (6.7%) have had an average duration of two weeks of in-service training and 4 (3.4%) have had a duration of three or more weeks of in-service training on authentic assessment whilst, 62 (52.1%) respondents gave non-attainable responses. Concerning the content relevance of the in-service training for adequate utilisation of authentic assessment in the instructional activities of the respondents, 56 (47.1%) said the content was relevant whilst 2 (1.7%) said otherwise. 61 (51.3%) respondents gave non-attainable responses.
The results in Table 2 showed that the respondents had fairly adequate knowledge about the knowledge and philosophy of the purpose of authentic assessment in education and their responses differ much from one another. This is evident from the computed values of mean and standard deviation as 2.89 and 1.26 respectively. Also, the majority of the respondents had fairly adequate knowledge of authentic assessment strategies or tools to adopt to assess student learning outcomes, and their responses were heterogeneous. This is seen from a computed mean of 2.90 and a standard deviation of 1.29. Similar findings came up which showed a mean value of 2.92 and a standard deviation of 1.27, which
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Table 2. Social Studies teachers’ knowledge in authentic assessment practice.
Source: Field survey (2022) Scale: VA = 5, A = 4, FA-3, I = 2, VI = 1.
implies that the majority of the respondents had a fairly adequate understanding of the ways authentic assessment allows students to evaluate their work using predetermined criteria. On the statement of knowledge of the influence of authentic assessment in promoting higher thinking skills among students, most of the respondents had a fairly adequate understanding of the statement, and their responses were heterogeneous. This can be seen from the computed mean value of 3.02 and a standard deviation of 1.23. Furthermore, the majority of the respondents had fairly adequate knowledge of how authentic assessment requires collaborative efforts of students in solving problems but their responses differ much from one another as the computed mean and standard deviation were 3.04 and 1.28 respectively. The overall results of Social Studies teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment had a mean value and standard deviation of 2.97 and 1.17 respectively. It can be deduced that the majority of the respondents had fairly adequate knowledge of the statements that sought their responses on knowledge of authentic assessment in Social Studies education and their responses was generally heterogeneous. This finding aligns with the study of [18] that Social Studies teachers have an average theoretical understanding of what authentic assessment is, and how it should be integrated into the classroom assessment process. The findings of the interview on interviewees understanding of authentic assessment in Social Studies showed similar understanding:
“Authentic assessment is a form of assessment which is practised outside in the world around us. This assessment is about using your acquired skills to help your community or economy to work (Interview with interviewee on 11th February 2022).”
“It is a good assessment method that makes the student aware that whatever he or she learns in the classroom is of relevance to his or her living in the home, community, neighbourhood and the country (Interview with interviewee on 25th February 2022).”
“When we say authentic assessment in Social Studies then it is about the using creative ideas through learning experiences to test the skills of the learner including, his or her knowledge in real-life situations to solve social issues, challenges or problems (Interview with interviewee on 4th March 2022).”
4.2. Testing for Hypothesis
Ho: There is no gender significant difference in Social Studies teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment.
H1: There is a significant gender difference in Social Studies teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment.
The results of Table 3 show that there is no difference in the mean values between male and female teachers, with the male teachers’ mean. An independent sample t-test was used to see if the difference in the mean values was statisticallysignificant. The mean score for male teachers (M = 3.02, SD = 1.23) is not significantly higher than for female teachers (M = 2.79, SD = 0.97) at (t = 0.966, df = 117, 0.094 > 0.05). As a result, the null hypothesis has been confirmed. The
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Table 3. Gender Difference in teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment.
Source: Field survey (2022).
study, therefore, found that there is no gender difference in the knowledge of authentic assessment among Social Studies teachers.
5. Conclusion
The study concluded that Social Studies teachers have fairly adequate knowledge and philosophy about authentic assessment as an assessment form in education. Hence, they are conversant in implementing authentic assessment practices in teaching Social Studies lessons. The study hypothesis also revealed that there was no significant gender difference in Social Studies teachers’ knowledge of authentic assessment.
6. Recommendations for Policy and Practice
1) College of education institutions should emphasise both the traditional assessment method and authentic assessment method to build the capacity of trained teachers.
2) The Ghana Education Service should strengthen the provision of continuous in-service training and competence development workshops on assessment, specifically on authentic assessment, to bridge the knowledge gap among teachers.
Acknowledgements
Much appreciation to Messrs. David Arhin and Samuel Bentil, and you.
NOTES
*How well Social Studies teachers know about authentic assessment and how they use it to assess their students’ learning outcomes.