1. Introduction
The first two writers reviewed the transfer of training thirty-four years ago (Baldwin & Ford, 1988), summarizing the available research findings at the time and outlining a study agenda for the future. Organizations have a wealth of value possibilities to improve efficiency and create new goods, services, and business representations because of social, economic, political, declining technology costs, and rising technical advances (de Beer, 2018: p. 3; du Plessis, 2021: p. 303; Lim, 2000: p. 243; Mdhlalose, 2022b: p. 435). However, Jain and Gautam (2016: p. 112) emphasise that the speedy instilment of the latest technology is becoming a challenge to measure and accomplish effective performance. However, Dewi and Fitrio (2022: p. 694) posit that despite the existence of contemporary technology, an organization cannot be divorced from its human resource.
Baldwin and Ford’s (1988) widely cited analysis of the “transfer issue” in training research, a plethora of theoretical and empirical proposals have been made to bridge the gap between classroom instruction and long-term application in the workplace (Burke & Hutchins, 2007). The phrase “transfer of training” describes when an employee successfully applies training to real-world work situations (Sims, 2006: p. 41). There is still an issue with trainees not applying what they have learned on the job, known as the “transfer problem,” which means organizations are unable to fully recoup their training costs (Bauer et al., 2014: p. 1). Thus, the problem of training transfer motivated this study as the problem still exists to this day as many employees in most organizations struggle to effectively transfer training.
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, organizations sought immeasurable techniques to enhance the performance of human resources. Thus, in contemporary the most forward-thinking organizations of today no longer view certain human resource practices as necessary costs but rather as strategic weapons in the fight for competitive advantage. Examples of these practices include incentive compensation, human resources participation, flexible work schedules, and training (Blume et al., 2010). Organizations are becoming more aware that the human element is the utmost significant aspect contributing to the efficacy and performance of the organization (Schenk, 2018: p. 313).
In the contemporary business environment, “lifetime employability” replaces “lifetime employment”. Many human resources’ careers stall or even stop at a lower level, a phenomenon known as, “career plateauing” (Mdhlalose, 2020a: p. 49). This is the Peter Principle, which states that in an organisation, the basis for the development of evaluating the potential human resource for advancement is the human resource’ present duties. The human resource will get a promotion until he/she reaches his/her highest levels of competence, possibly to a new position where the human resource becomes incompetent and a novice. This resulted in animmense problem in the use of performance management due to a gap between the development of skills and knowledge. Thus, the success of an organization is based on the abilities of the human resources working for the organisation (Els, 2021). Donovan, Hannigan, and Crowe (2001: p. 221) posit that the capacity of an organization to develop and exploit the skills of its human resources is becoming an increasingly imperative source of competitiveness.
An organisation cannot achieve its goals without providing its human resources with the training they need to grow and succeed in their roles (Fuchs, 2021). The success of training that aids in performance improvement for both human resources and organizations depends in large part on training transfer (Dewayani & Ferdinand, 2019: p. 142). Subsequently, theoretically, the transfer of training ought to enhance human resource performance, provided that the training is pertinent to the demands of the job needs. This study seeks to explore the determinants of a successful transfer of training. More than ever before if learning skills are successfully applied in the workplace, both the organization and human resources may attain their goals (Bhatti & Kaur, 2010: p. 657). In developing countries, it is more important than ever for people to enhance their knowledge, skills, attitudes, (KSA) and behaviours while at work (Nmadu et al., 2021: p. 2).
2. Problem Statement
du Plessis (2021: p. 303) makes a compelling case that the formal sector’s lack of well-educated, talented human resources affects not just an organization’s competitiveness but also its capacity to transmit important skills from senior human resources to less-experienced personnel. Over the years, organizations have assumed that successful training will result in successful organizations. Much of the time, the transfer of training to organizations that would act as a channel for organizational success does not take place, resulting in millions of dollars being wasted over the years with no discernible return on investment (Grossman & Salas, 2011: p. 103; Gyimah, 2015: p. 137; Park & Jacobs, 2008: p. 1).
Transfer of training is a perennial issue in the fields of psychology and education (Grose & Briney, 1963). Human resources reportedly return less than 10% of training and development costs to their employer, according to one estimate (Brown, 2005: p. 369; Ford, Yelon, & Billington, 2011: p. 12; Elangovan & Karakowsky, 1999: p. 268; Lim & Morris, 2006: p. 85). In support of the above research fining Figure 1 below illustrates how the learning and forgetting curves represent some of the fundamental characteristics of human cognition. Thalheimer (2006: p. 10) emphasises that even though people often pick up new information quickly, actual competence requires time and a lot of studies. Keep in mind that forgetting often happens fast as well. In reference to Figure 1, there are negative consequences to spacing out repeats. As a rule, there is an increase in forgetting between helpful repeats when they are spaced apart. Students are encouraged to temporarily forget material at the beginning of lessons so that they may recall it more easily afterwards (Thalheimer, 2006: p. 10).
Lack of training causes a gap between where the organization is and where it should be, as shown in Figure 2 gap analysis is a tool that organizations may use to identify where their gaps are (Fincham & Rhodes, 2012: p. 102). The “transfer problem” in organizational training is becoming more widely acknowledged, according to Ford and Weissbein (1997: p. 22), as concerns are voiced that most of the knowledge imparted does not transfer to the workplace. Only when the transfer of knowledge to practical circumstances is consistently successful can investments in training methods be deemed beneficial (Tonhäuser & Büker, 2016: p. 127).
This has prompted several studies over the years to figure out why transfer has not been achieved. Scholars that studied the transfer of training are Blume et al. (2010); Bhatti and Kaur (2010); Bhatti et al. (2013); Bron (2012); Grossman and Salas (2011); Huang, Ford, and Ryan (2016); Kasim and Ali (2011); Tonhäuser and Büker (2016); Weissbein et al. (2010). Considering this study, the problem is that organizations are failing to transfer training effectively and efficiently. Although it has been discovered that human resources have the desire to advance their abilities, however, they frequently lack their employers’ assistance (Christiana et al., 2021: p. 10). One factor that affects how effective training is transferred is the training atmosphere (Sulaiman et al., 2020: p. 996). Organizations may have trouble determining which criteria are most important, though, because of the lingering ambiguity (Grossman & Salas, 2011).
3. Research Methods
Data analysis relies heavily on data collecting. There are various ways to obtain information for research, and they all fall into one of two categories: primary data or secondary data (Gravetter & Forzano, 2009: p. 46; Howard, 2014: p. 101; Surbhi, 2020):
· Primary data refers to information obtained directly from sources by the researcher (Ajayi, 2017: p. 3).
· Secondary data refers to information gathered previously by another party (Ajayi, 2017: p. 3).
In this paper, the researcher used secondary data because this study is based on longitudinal analysis, which increases the validity and reliability of the data for users (Prasanna, 2022). Data can be gathered from a variety of sources and analysed for users (Prasanna, 2022). Respond to specific research queries and test specific hypotheses (Relevant Insights, 2020). More intelligent primary data interpretation (Relevant Insights, 2020). Analyze primary research data to identify broad trends in a sector or a particular product category (Relevant Insights, 2020). Secondary information was collected via the use of many online search tools and specialised journals. Books, articles and online sources that related to the topic were read to aid the investigation.
4. Materials and Methods
An evaluation must determine if the stated goals were achieved because all training is governed by objectives (Gyimah, 2015: p. 135). The ability of a training program to transfer knowledge to the workplace is one of the main indicators of its efficacy (Kirkpatrick, 1967). One may unlock untapped potential and build a stronger, more flexible staff by understanding how to transmit these abilities throughout the organization (Els, 2021).
By assisting staff members in acquiring and enhancing job-related abilities, a structured programme of activities known as training can help to enhance current performance at the individual, group, and organizational levels (Schenk, 2018: p. 334). According to Dewayani and Ferdinand (2019: p. 142) and Mdhlalose (2020a: p. 51), training is a crucial component of organizational practices that aim to enhance and develop human resources knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Kasim and Ali (2011: p. 377) emphasise that transfer was first described as the degree to which learning a reaction to one activity or condition impacts the response to another work or environment. Training transfer measures how well human resources apply, generalize, and uphold newly learned KSA obtained from training programs in a work environment (Baldwin et al., 2017; Brinkerhoff & Apking, 2001; Wexley & Latham, 1981). The three crucial components of training transfer are transfer initiation, transfer generalization, and transfer maintenance (Baldwin & Ford, 1988).
4.1. Training in an Organizational Structure
The premise behind the profession of human resource management (HRM) is that human resources are an organization’s most valuable resource and that their performance has a significant impact on the success of the organization (Phiri & Phiri, 2022: p. 2462). Human resource management practices refer to a collection of procedures or systems that organizations can use to manage how they handle their most assets which are human resources to gain and maintain an incomparable competitive edge and produce superior results (Mondejar & Asio, 2022: p. 1631). A variety of sub-structures make up an organization, which are arranged in accordance with the demands of the organization (Botha, 2018: p. 56; du Plessis, 2021: p. 316). The functions of the marketing, production, finance, and human resource sub-structures are a few examples.
The human resources function’s human planning, recruiting and selection, training and development, and labour relations are just a few examples of how each of these sub-structures may be further broken down into smaller structures. Despite the claim made by Robbins, Coulter and Decenzo (2020: p. 259) that formalization is essential for consistency and control, many organizations today depend less on rigid guidelines and regulations to direct and control the behaviour of human resources. Figure 3 shows where the training utility is located inside the organization.
Erasmus et al. (2019a, 2019b), emphasise some of the reasons why organizations invest in human resource training and development and these reasons are: include:
· Human resource’ job knowledge and abilities increase.
· It helps with organizational growth.
· It helps to improve job quality and productivity.
· As a result of more productive working methods, expenses and waste are decreased.
· Human resources are trained for upcoming roles.
· It could result in more profits or better client relations.
· Staff turnover is decreased, and human resource morale is raised.
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Figure 3. Training and development Organizational Chart. Source: Developed by the researcher.
· The atmosphere in the workplace has improved.
· Human resources can adapt to change more readily.
· Conducive environment designed for development and communication is established.
4.2. An Overview of Modelled Transfer of Training Determinants
Baldwin and Ford (1988) assessed the body of prior research on the topic and made recommendations for further investigation. These authors were worried about the lack of a sound theoretical foundation and the scarcity of relevant research.
Table 1, delineates the following as the main determinants of transfer of training (Tonhäuser & Büker, 2016: p. 133):
· Organizational level of the characteristics of the work environment.
· Learning field level of the characteristics of the training measure.
· Individual level of the characteristics of participants.
A summary of the key factors that have been modelled in significant transfer models and are distinguished by these three levels of characteristics from various academics see figure Table 1.
Below Table 1 clarified the examined main transfer models as equal in recognizing and distinguishing the key attributes levels of the organisation, field of learning, and characteristics of individuals to clarify the transfer of training and the collaboration between the determinants of training (Tonhäuser & Büker, 2016: p. 135).
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Table 1. Overview of modelled transfer of training determinants in important transfer of training models.
Source: Tonhäuser and Büker (2016: p. 133).
Baldwin and Ford (1988) emphasised that transfer training begins with training inputs, moves on to training outputs, and finally finishes with transfer conditions. The transfer is aided when trainees see direct connections between training and the performance necessary on the job and the results they value (Chiaburu & Lindsay, 2008). Baldwin and Ford (1988) identified the work environment as a key training input for transfer to occur. Even though the trainee characteristics and training design are essential, in the wrong environment transfer may be difficult. It is obvious that factors other than those inherent to the training program itself have a significant role in how well the instruction is transferred. However, considerations that relate to the characteristics of the trainees may be the most fundamental ones (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Thus, a tool that should be explored as a possible facilitator for boosting the effective transfer of training into the workplace is the organizational transfer climate (Rouiller & Goldstein, 1993).
4.3. Training Transfer Principles
Baldwin and Ford (1988) provide training principles that regulate the transfer of training, see Table 2.
Teaching through general principles asserts that transfer is aided when trainees are taught not only practically useful skills but also the fundamental norms and philosophical ideas that frame the training’s subject matter (Baldwin & Ford, 1988: p. 66; McGehee & Thayer, 1961).
4.4. Forms of Transfer of training
Transfer can take a variety of forms. Knowing the training program’s objectives and more importantly, if they are connected to the strategic goals of the organization can help assess whether training transfer is effective (Gyimah 2015: p. 138). In their study, Barnard et al. (2001), describe the various kinds of transfer and give an overview of them (see Table 3).
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Table 2. List of training transfer principles.
Source: Baldwin and Ford (1988).
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Table 3. Different forms of transfer.
Source: Barnard et al. (2001).
The many types of transfer are depicted in the table above. In addition to knowing the kind of training that would be important for the company’s success, it is important to know the kind of transfer that would help the organization reach its intended goals (Gyimah 2015: p. 139).
4.5. Theories that Upholding Transfer of Training
There is conflicting empirical data about the order of transfer incentive and action. Training failure and low return on investment due to undermotivated human resources are major issues in human resource development (HRD) theory and practice (Gegenfurtner et al., 2009: p. 403). According to Holton III (1996), the four areas of factors on transfer motivation are intervention fulfilment, learning outcomes, job attitudes, and expected utility. Expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal-setting theory can each be used to explain one or more of these categories (Jaidev, 2014: p. 956). In 2001, Yamnill and Mclean compiled the theories and discussed their effects in three categories.
· Theories on motivation to transfer
○ Expectancy Theory: Vroom (1964: p. 17) defined expectancy as, a fleeting conviction that there is a possibility that a specific deed will take place before a particular result. As a result, a trainee will choose to behave or act in a particular manner because they have expectations or consequences connected to that behaviour (Jaidev, 2014: p. 957).
○ Equity Theory: Human resources demand incentives that are fair to both their own inputs and to the awards received by other employees who provided similar inputs (Adams & Freedman, 1976). Therefore, it follows that human resources who seek equal treatment and desire to lessen disparities in pay, prizes, and other incentives may be expected to study and effectively apply the training material to their workplace (Jaidev, 2014: p. 957).
○ Goal Setting Theory: Is based on the notion that clear goals are more effective than vague ones when they are defined and quantifiable. (Locke, 1968). Setting objectives, either by the trainee or by the organization’s constituents, appears to be vital for engaging in a behaviour because of training (Jaidev, 2014: p. 957).
· Theories on training design
○ Identical elements theory: The theory of identical elements was proposed by Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). According to the theory, by improving the degree of correspondence between the training environment’s stimuli, responses, circumstances, and those associated components active in the performance context, the transfer can be increased (Yamnill & Mclean, 2001).
○ Principles Theory: If the principles theory is used in a training set, it may be inferred that training should concentrate on the fundamental ideas required to accomplish a task so that the learner can use them to solve issues in the transfer environment (Goldstein, 1986).
○ Near and Far Transfer: According to Laker (1990), When learning is used in a context comparable to the one in which it was first learned, it is referred to as near transfer; when learning is applied in a setting unrelated to the initial learning during training, it is referred to as far transfer.
· Theories supporting the transfer of climate
○ Transfer Climate framework: According to Rouiller and Goldstein (1993), the transfer atmosphere is made up of two categories of workplace cues: situation cues and consequence cues. The initial set of situational cues and workplace signals serve to remind trainees of the chances to put their newfound knowledge to use when they return to the job. The feedback that trainees get after applying the information, abilities, and attitudes they learned in training back to their employment makes up the second set of workplace cues and consequence signals.
○ Organization Theory: Organizational climate, as described by organization theory, (cited in Yamnill & Mclean, 2001) supports the context of work teams, subunits, and organizational levels that includes the need for change, the execution of interventions, and the transfer of trained skills.
4.6. Review of Empirical Evidence
Table 4 represents the empirical review from 2010 until 2020 aligned with this study.
Source: Developed by the researcher.
5. Conclusion and Implications
It is impossible for a researcher to undertake a study without hoping that it will lead to a positive change in the world. This review paper revised the review and analysis of the transfer of training in an organization. Based on the conclusions of this study’s investigation, the determinants of a successful transfer of training are organizational level (characteristics of the work environment), learning field level (characteristics of the training measure) and individual level (characteristics of participants). Still, the trainee attributes and work environment have unswerving effects on the transfer of training. Thus, the transfer of training to be successful in the surrounding environment must be supportive.
Training transfer principles do not only focus on training human resources skills but moreover the fundamental norms and philosophical ideas that frame the training’s subject matter. Transfer can take a variety of forms however knowing the training program’s objectives and if they are in line with the strategic goals of the organization can help assess whether training transfer is effective. Under motivated human resources is a major problem that leads to the transfer of training being unsuccessful. However, organizations can use a variety of motivational theories such as theories on motivation to transfer, theories on training design and theories supporting the transfer of climate to inspire their human resources. Supervisor endorsement and initiative in learning significantly affect retention of transfer of training.
Enhancing performance is the goal of both transfer designs and the belief in the validity of the material being taught. A learner’s response to the perceived content validity of a lesson influences their desire to transfer that lesson. Factors including intelligence, conscientiousness, motivation, and a favourable work environment are positively correlated with the transfer. Human resources and their organizations benefit from training transfer when workers successfully implement the knowledge they have gained.
6. Limitations of the Study
This study was subjected to the following limitations:
· In this study, only secondary data were consulted.
· There is a dearth of literature since there has been modest research on training transfer.
· Inaccuracy in the data was beyond the researcher’s control due to the author’s prejudice, there is some embellishment in the data.
7. Recommendations
The outcomes of this study’s theoretical and empirical research serve as the fundamental cornerstones for the following suggestions:
· The work environment plays a pivotal role in the success of training transfer; thus, organizations must offer an environment that is conducive enough to allow a successful transfer of training takes place in the workplace.
· Failure to successfully transfer training is often attributable to a lack of motivation on the part of human resources. Organizations can use motivational theories with incentives to motivate their human resources so that the transfer of training becomes a success.
· The concepts of training transfer are not limited to the development of human resources competencies. Organizations should use the transfer of training principles to also allow the improvements of the fundamental norms and philosophical ideas that frame the training subject matter.
8. Suggestions for Future Research
The following future or further research studies are being proposed:
· There is a lack of evidence on the impact of training transfer during learning and on-the-job training. Thus, this study suggests a study on the examination of the influence of training of transfer during learning and on the job after training.
· Theories on transfer motivation, training design, and climate transfer are just a few examples of the types of motivational theories that may be used by businesses to motivate their workforce. Thus, this study suggests a study focusing on the impact of motivational theories on the transfer of training in the workplace.
· From the study work environment is the most important factor in training transfer and empirical evidence lacks on its effects on training transfer. Thus, this study suggests a study on an analysis of the impact of the environment on the transfer of training in the workplace.