Phyto-Taxonomic Insights into the Flora of Wadi Ganona: A Case Study from Southwestern of Saudi Arabia

Ali H. Alabdli¹, Ali Khalid Elsafori², Abdullah H. Alayafi^2*

¹Department of Plant Diversity and Combating Desertification, National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
²Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

DOI: 10.4236/ajps.2025.164034                

Abstract

This study affords a protaxonomic and phytosyllabic review of the plant species established at Wadi Ganona, southwestern Saudi Arabia. A total of 106 plant species were identified as follows: through an extensive collection, preparation, and identification of plant samples in the study area: 44 families and 83 genera. There is a higher specific richness in medicinal plant species, of which 39 species (36.8 percent of the total) illustrate pharmacological uses. Checklist of fodder, famine food, and threatened plant species is prepared to be used as aids to conservation. This study adheres to recent taxonomic corrections, incorporating updates to the classification of the Acacia genus, which is now divided into two distinct genera: Vachellia and Senegalia. The results suggest that Wadi Ganona plant species need to be protected and preserved to reduce desertification effects, to support the variability of species, and to prevent the loss of species that have economic and medicinal values. Measures to protect this peculiar vegetation, focusing on the further rational use of the described territory due to the violation of the balance of the biotic and abiotic components, are outlined. The present study adds to the knowledge of the force flora of the Western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as there is a lack of such data in the published botanical literature for this area of the region and emphasizes the need to protect these invaluable resources.

Keywords

Identification, Classification, Plant Species, Medicinal Values, Famine Plants, Threatened Plants

1. Introduction

Saudi Arabia divides its vegetation cover into five broad categories. 1) Vegetation of coastal plains and Sabkhas; 2) Deserts and scarcely vegetated areas; 3) Dwarf shrublands; 4) Woodlands and xeromorphic shrublands in high-altitude areas; 5) Wadi Communities [1]. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is situated in the Arabian Peninsula, occupying an area of about two million square kilometers and including highland structures—mountains and valleys, dunes and stony deserts, salt marshes, and volcanic fields—Harrats [2]. Thornthwaite’s global climate classification categorizes the overall climate of the country, except for Asir Province, as arid [3]. The flora of Saudi Arabia is considered the richest biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula, containing important genetic resources of crop and medicinal plants, with xerophytic vegetation making up the prominent features of the kingdom’s plant life [4]. According to Collenette [5], the greatest species diversity in Saudi Arabia has occurred in Asir and Hijaz, the western mountainous area of the Kingdom, which borders the Red Sea. This is because of rainfall and a variety of altitudes, from sea level to 9300 m. Many previous studies showed that the topography of the study area and climatic conditions are the main factors affecting the degree of speciation. The flora and vegetation cover of Saudi Arabia were extensively studied and represented in several works, which may be regarded as the standard reference flora of the area [6]-[9]. The western part of Saudi Arabia is characterized by a diverse and dense vegetation structure with significant ecological and floristic diversity. This region is divided into distinct ecological zones, including coastal Tihama, foothills, and escarpments, each supporting unique plant communities as populations of Acacia tortilis, Maerua crassifolia, Ficus palmata, Moringa peregrine, and Ocharadenus baccatus visible. Recent studies have highlighted the presence of approximately 2253 plant species in Saudi Arabia, with about 20% classified as rare, distributed across 132 families and 837 genera [10] [11]-[13]. This diversity is reflected in the specific plant communities found in the western region, which include both native and alien species. A single species represents 37 families. The southwestern region, from Taif to the Yamen border, contains about 70% of floristic elements of Saudi Arabia. The main objectives of this study are to document the flora of Wadi Ganona, thereby contributing to the updating of the flora of Saudi Arabia, and to identify plant species of economic importance.

The flora of Saudi Arabia is somewhat complex, having affinities with the flora of East Africa, North Africa, the Mediterranean countries, and the Irano-Turkish countries. The distribution of species is unequal in Saudi Arabia. Most of the species are in meadows, mountains, and wadis (valleys). The average number of species occurring in a km² area is only a few, especially in the central, eastern, and northern areas, with the largest species load in the densely forested southwest mountainous region. These regions report having an area of flora that is about 70%. Nonetheless, the percentage of endemism in such a vast country remains comparably small. Currently, there are 2215 species documented, of which only 56 are strictly endemic to the Kingdom, contributing to only 2.54% of the total recorded species. [14]-[16]. The study area was selected for investigation in the present for several reasons. Firstly, there is no large number of specimens from the study area. Secondly, the last years witnessed the prevalence of good rainy seasons, which would support the actual flora of the area.

The study of native Flora is important for many reasons. In the article under analysis, ecological value, economic value and social and cultural value can be distinguished. Flora should be managed in efforts to increase the general health of some ecosystems. Known threats that have the potential to affect the flora are clearance, declining ecosystem health, pollution and diseases, overgrazing by livestock, competition with introduced plants, salinity, impacts of mining, urbanization, and climate change. The environment in semi-arid areas has the following key issues: drought, heat stress, low soil fertility, as well as reduced rainfall incidences.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area is the Wadi Ganona area, which is in the southwest region of Saudi Arabia. This area extends approximately 108 kilometers and passes through Al-Ardiyat and Al-Qunfudhah provinces in the Makkah District (Figure 1). The research region holds variant terrains in proportion to the numerous plant species in the area.

The region under investigation has a dry subtropical climate, with hot summers and mild winters. According to data from 1994 to 2024 gathered from the website: https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/historyclimate/climatemodelled/al-qunfudhah_saudi-arabia_108896, the average annual temperature is 30.7˚C, with January and February being the coldest months and June and July being the hottest. There is little and irregular precipitation. The climate chart showing the average annual temperatures and precipitation in Al-Qunfudhah provinces (1994-2024) is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 1. The position of the study area.

Figure 2. Climate chart showing the average annual range of temperatures and precipitation in Al-Qunfudhah provinces (1994-2024).

2.2. Materials Collection and Specimen Preparation

The field trips were carried out to the study area for collecting the specimens randomly using a circular quadrat with a diameter of 50 m. Plant specimens were collected fresh from different sites of the study area at different times of the years 2023 and 2024. The whole plant was collected in the case of herbs and twigs with leaves and flowers and/or fruits in the case of shrubs and trees. Newspapers were regularly replaced during the drying process to prevent material degradation; field observations were documented, encompassing habit, habitat, distribution, and coloration of flowers and liquids during the collection excursions. In the herbarium, further analysis and identification were conducted by examining the various parts of the collected specimens with a hand lens. Delicate floral characteristics were analyzed using the Mbc-10 dissection microscope.

The common names of species were documented by residents in the study area [17]. The medicinal folkloric applications of the collected species and additional uses have been presented. The uses have been derived from existing literature or flora of adjacent countries [18], and additional information was gathered from the local inhabitants of the study area.

3. Results

The survey of the plant species in the study area portrayed 106 species of plants belonging to 44 families, which show a variety of vegetation types (Table 1). The identified flora included 42dicotyledons and two monocotyledons, which indicates a relatively high level of angiosperm representation. Species richness proved to be variable depending on the families, some families comprised more than one species; on the other hand, while others consisted of only one species.

Of the 106 plant species, 39 were found to have therapeutic applications: making up 36.8% of the total number of plants (Table 2). Some medicinal plants found in the study area, including Adenium obesum, Senna alexandrina, and Commiphora myrrha, are illustrated in Figure 3. The finding indicates that a substantial portion of therapeutic plants can be found in the study area. Further illustrating the area’s potential as a grazing resource, the vegetation sampling study also indicated fodder values for 22 species, or roughly 21.2% of the total documented flora species in the area (Table 3). Some fodder plants found in the study area, including Vachellia flava, Cleome pallida, and Maerua crassifolia are shown in Figure 4. Furthermore, 8 nutritious species—which accounted for 7.6% of plant species—were also investigated (Table 4). Some famine food plants found in the study area, including Delonix elata, Odontanthera radians, and Senna italica, are depicted in Figure 5. As a result, some woody species were designated as threatened, as Table 5 below illustrates.

The Flora

A total of 106 different species of plants in the region were recognized according to the 44 families, which include 42 families of dicotyledons and 2 families of monocotyledons. The nomenclature of the species, genera, and families of the flora of the studied area has been updated. The following results are enumerated.

Table 1. Flora of Wadi Ganona, Western Saudi Arabia (Families are listed alphabetical order).

Family		Species		Ver. Name
1	Acanthaceae	1	Blepharis ciliaris (L.) B.L. Burtt	Suha
		2	Anisotes trisulcus (Forssk.) Nees.	Mud
2	Aizoaceae	3	Trianthema portulacastrum L.	Ragum Lany
3	Amaranthaceae	4	Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult.	Tirf
		5	Amaranthus graecizans L.	Shadkh
		6	Caroxylon spinescens (Moq.) Akhani & Roalson	Jurm
4	Amaryllidaceae	7	Pancratium tortuosum Herbert	Basal Althaelab
5	Apocynaceae	8	Adenium obesum (Forssk) Roem. & Schult.	Aden
		9	Clatropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f.	Eushar
6	Arecaceae	10	Hyphaene thebaica (L.) mart.	Dum
		11	Phoenix caespitosa Chiov.	Shatab
7	Asclepiadaceae	12	Caralluma russeliana (Courb. ex Brongon.) Cufod.	Galthi
		13	Leptadenia arborea (Forssk.) Schweinf.	Ghashy, Liwyth
		14	Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.)	Marakh
		15	Odontanthera radians (Forssk.) D.V. Field	Shutb
		16	Sarcostemma forskaolianum (Schult.) Meve & Liede	Ryd
8	Asparagaceae	17	Dipcadi erythraeum Webb. & Berthel.	Basal Alsayd
9	Asteraceae	18	Pulicaria inuloides (Poir.) DC.	Sukab
		19	Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A.Mey	Jithjath
10	Boraginaceae	20	Heliotropium arbainense Fresen.	Ramram
		21	Heliotropium curassavicum L.	Akrir Aghbur
		22	Heliotropium aegyptiacum Lehm.	Raqib Alshams Misri
		23	Heliotropium longiflorum (A. DC.) Jaub. & Spach	Raqib alshams
		24	Heliotropium pterocarpum Hockst. & Steud. ex Bunge	Akrir
11	Burseraceae	25	Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C.Chr	Basham
		26	Commiphora Kataf (Forssk). Engl.	Gafal
		27	Commiphora quadricincta Schweinf.	Qataf
		28	Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.	Mur
12	Capparaceae	29	Cadaba longifolia DC.	Ghassa’
		30	Cadaba rotundifolia Forssk.	Qadab
		31	Cadaba glandulosa Forssk.	Taneim
		32	Capparis decidua Edgew (Forssk.)	Tundub
		33	Maerua crassifolia Forssk.	Ssarh
		34	Maerua oblongifolia (Forssk.) A.Rich.	Sommar
13	Chenopodiaceae	35	Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel.	Hamd
14	Cleomaceae	36	Cleome gynandra L.	Ayfqan
		37	Cleome pallida Kotschy	Earfaj Tihama
		38	Cleome paradoxa R.Br. ex DC.	Gharira, Hindib
		39	Cleome viscosa L.	Sumah elaeir
15	Convolvulaceae	40	Convolvulus prostratus Forssk.	Oleik, Rukhami
		41	Ipomea carenea Jacq.	Ipomoea
16	Cucurbitaceae	42	Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.	Handhal
		43	Cucumis melo L.	Shmmam
17	Cyperaceae	44	Cyperus macrorrhizus Nees.	Eashm
18	Euphorbiaceae	45	Chrozophora oblongifolia (Delile) A.Juss. ex Spreng.	Tanwm
		46	Euphorbia cuneata Vahl.	Bakaa
		47	Jatropha pelargoniifolia Courbon	Eaga
		48	Ricinus communis L.	Khrwe
19	Fabaceae	49	Delonix elata (L.) Gamble	Rnf
		50	Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk.	Hasar
		51	Indigofera hochstetteri Baker	Saql
		52	Indigofera spinosa Forssk.	Shibrq
		53	Lotus arabicus Sol. ex L.	Al Hathra
		54	Prosopis julliflora (Sw.) Dc.	Misqeet
		55	Rhynchosia pulverulenta Stocks	Argos
		56	Senna alexandrina Mill.	Senna Makkah
		57	Senna italica Mill.	Ashraq
		58	Senegalia asak (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr.	Easaq, Dahyan
		59	Senegalia hamulosa (Benth.) Boatwr.	Qtad
		60	Tamarindus indica L.	Homar
		61	Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.	Huayra
		62	Tephrosia nubica (Boiss.) Baker	Eadhb
		63	Vachellia flava (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr.	Sslam
		64	Vachilia oerfota (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr.	Orfot
		65	Vachellia johnwoodii (Bouls) Ragup., Seigler, Ebinger & Maslin	Sial
		66	Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi	Samur
20	Gisekiaceae	67	Gisekia pharnaceoides L.	Eidman
21	Labiatae	68	Ocimum forsskaolii Benth.	dymran
22	Lamiaceae	69	Lavandula pubescens Decne.	Shaye
		70	Premna resinosa (Hochst.) Schauer	Shuqab
23	Loranthaceae	71	Plicosepalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.) Tiegh.	Anum
24	Lythraceae	72	Lawsonia inermis L.	Henna
25	Malvaceae	73	Corchorus depressus (L.) Peterm.	Wykah
		74	Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori.	Nabaa
26	Menispermaceae	75	Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Diels	Gashwa
27	Moraceae	76	Ficus salicifolia Vahl	Athab
		77	Ficus sycomorus L.	Gomez, Ebra
28	Moringaceae	78	Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori	Ussr, Ban
29	Molluginaceae	79	Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser.	Gaishageshan
30	Nyctaginaceae	80	Boerhavia diffusa L.	Ragam
31	Papaveraceae	81	Argemone ochroleuca Sweet	Hashrah
32	Plantaginaceae	82	Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell	Ladaid
		83	Scorparia dulcis L.	Dafra
33	Poaceae	84	Cenchrus ciliaris L.	Eibad
		85	Chloris gayana Kunth	Rodass Bari
		86	Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss.	Andab
		87	Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Thwaites	Ekrsh
		88	Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv.	Halfa
		89	Panicum turgidum Forssk.	Thumam, Dharam
		90	Pennisetum divisum (Forssk.ex J.F.Gmel.) Henrard	Sabga
34	Resedaceae	91	Ochradenus baccatus Delile	Garady
35	Rhamnaceae	92	Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.	Sidr
36	Salvadoraceae	93	Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir.	Dabr
		94	Salvadora persica L.	Arak
37	Orobanchaceae	95	Lindenbergia indica (L.) Vatke	Hwaimdah
38	Solanaceae	96	Solanum coagulans Forssk.	Hadaq
		97	Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal	Obaab
39	Tamaricaceae	98	Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge	Athl, Thalthal
		99	Tamarix aphylla (L.) H.Karst.	Athel
40	Typhaceae	100	Typha domingensis Pers.	Bardi
41	Urticaceae	101	Forsskaolea tenacissima L.	Lasyq
42	Verbenaceae	102	Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene	Mashaba
43	Vitaceae	103	Cissus quadrangularis L.	Salae
		104	Cissus rotundifolia Lam.	Halas, Galef
44	Zygophyllaceae	105	Fagonia indica Burm.fil.	Shkae
		106	Zygophyllum simplex L.	Garmal

Table 2. Medicinal plant species at the study area (Families are listed alphabetical order).

Family		Species		Used Parts	Disease treated	Ref.
1	Acanthaceae	1	Blepharis ciliaris (L.) B.L. Burtt	Whole Herb	Toothache and skin wounds	[19]
		2	Anisotes trisulcus (Forssk.) Nees.	Leaves	Diabetes Foot inflammation	[19]
2	Aizoaceae	3	Trianthema portulacastrum L.	Leaves	skin conditions and gastrointestinal issues.	[20]
3	Amaranthaceae	4	Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult.	Whole Plant	Toothache	[18]
4	Apocynaceae	5	Adenium obesum (Forssk) Roem. & Schult.	Aerial Parts	Joint pain, paralysis, skin infections, wounds, and bone dislocations	[19]
5	Asclepiadaceae	6	Leptadenia arborea (Forssk.) Schweinf.	stems, roots	respiratory issues and digestive disorders	[21]
		7	Sarcostemma forskaolianum (Schult.) Meve & Liede	Stem, Root, Latex, Seeds	diabetic foot ulcers	[22]
6	Boraginaceae	8	Heliotropium arbainense Fresen.	Whole Plant	gout, rheumatism, skin disorders, and inflammatory conditions	[23]
7	Burseraceae	9	Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C.Chr	Stem	burns and skin infections	[24]
		10	Commiphora Kataf (Forssk). Engl.	Resin	wounds and ulcers	[22]
		11	Commiphora quadricincta Schweinf.	Stem	wounds and skin infections	[25]
		12	Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.	Resin	wounds, mouth ulcers, arthritis, and hyperlipidemia	[26]
8	Capparaceae	13	Cadaba rotundifolia Forssk.	Leaves	Arthritis, tonsillitis, tumors and abscesses	[27]
		14	Cadaba glandulosa Forssk.	Leaves	liver-related issues and viral infections	[27]
9	Cucurbitaceae	15	Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.	Fruits	alleviate indigestion and stomach pain	[18]
10	Cyperaceae	16	Cyperus macrorrhizus Nees.	Powder	gastrointestinal and respiratory issues, blood disorders, and inflammatory diseases	[28]
11	Euphorbiaceae	17	Jatropha pelargoniifolia Courbon	Aerial Parts	Pain and fever	[27]
		18	Ricinus communis L.	Leaves	constipation and promoting digestive health	[29]
12	Fabaceae	19	Delonix elata (L.) Gamble	Fresh leaves	alleviate pain and joint stiffness	[30]
		20	Senna alexandrina Mill.	Leaves	constipation and digestive disorders	[26]
		21	Senna italica Mill.	Fruits	constipation and digestive disorders	[31]
		22	Senegalia asak (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr.	Leaves, Bark, Roots	respiratory issues	[32]
		23	Senegalia hamulosa (Benth.) Boatwr.	Leaves, Bark	dental pain	[32]
		24	Tamarindus indica L.	Fruits	diabetes, fever, ulcers, and respiratory issues	[18]
		25	Vachilia oerfota (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr.	Bark	diabetes, respiratory issues, and skin conditions.	[25]
13	Lamiaceae	26	Lavandula pubescens Decne.	Aerial Parts	alleviate mild mood disorders, such as anxiety and depression	[33]
14	Loranthaceae	27	Plicosepalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.) Tiegh.	Stem	diabetes and cancer	[23]
15	Lythraceae	28	Lawsonia inermis L.	Leaves	skin and hair health	[26]
16	Malvaceae	29	Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori.	Aerial Parts	Iron Deficiency Anemia and Gastrointestinal Disorders	[19]
17	Moraceae	30	Ficus salicifolia Vahl	Whole Plant	diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, and respiratory issues	[34]
		31	Ficus sycomorus L.	Stem	dysentery and as a wound dressing agent	[25]
18	Moringaceae	32	Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori	Leaves, Seeds	fever, muscle pain, asthma, and digestive issues	[26]
19	Poaceae	33	Panicum turgidum Forssk.	Whole Herb	Antifungal	[18]
20	Resedaceae	34	Ochradenus baccatus Delile	Whole herb	Reproductive health, headaches, fevers, and as antibiotic and deodorant	[18]
21	Rhamnaceae	35	Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.	Leaves	Swellings, inflammatory disorders and wounds	[18]
22	Salvadoraceae	36	Salvadora persica L.	Aerial parts	Gastrointestinal disorders, increase milk production	[29]
23	Solanaceae	37	Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal	Leaves	resilience to stress and restore balance	[18]
24	Tamaricaceae	38	Tamarix aphylla (L.) H.Karst.	Leaves, Roots	oxidative stress	[22]
25	Verbenaceae	39	Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene	Leaves	Detoxification, diuretic, stomachic, and astringent	[29]

Figure 3. Some medicinal plants found in the study area. (A) Adenium obesum; (B) Senna alexandrina; (C) Commiphora myrrha.

Table 3. Fodder plant species at the study area (Families are listed alphabetical order).

Family		Species		Nutritional value	Ref.
1	Asclepiadaceae	1	Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.)	High protein and mineral content, for ruminants	[35]
2	Boraginaceae	2	Heliotropium pterocarpum Hockst. & Steud. ex Bunge	Fibrous structure and nutrient content, for cattle and goats	[36]
3	Capparaceae	3	Capparis decidua Edgew (Forssk.)	Rich in protein, vitamins, minerals, flavonoids and other phytochemicals, for goats, sheep and camels	[37]
		4	Maerua crassifolia Forssk.	Crude protein, organic matter and minerals, for ruminants	[38]
4	Cleomaceae	5	Cleome pallida Kotschy	High levels of crude protein, mineral composition for ruminants	[39]
5	Convolvulaceae	6	Convolvulus prostratus Forssk.	Crude protein and mineral content for Goats and camels	[40]
6	Cucurbitaceae	7	Cucumis melo L.	Rich in carbohydrates, protein, lipids, minerals and fiber content, for ruminants and livestock	[41]
7	Cyperaceae	8	Cyperus macrorrhizus Nees.	Carbohydrates, proteins, rich in fats, vitamins and minerals for ruminants and livestock	[42]
8	Euphorbiaceae	9	Chrozophora oblongifolia (Delile) A.Juss. ex Spreng.	Crude protein and mineral content, for camels and cattle	[43]
9	Fabaceae	10	Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk.	High crude protein, mineral content, for small ruminants and cattle	[44]
		11	Indigofera hochstetteri Baker	Rich in crude protein, crude fiber, minerals and vitamins, for ruminants and non-ruminants	[44]
		12	Indigofera spinosa Forssk.	High crude protein, for goats	[44]
		13	Rhynchosia pulverulenta Stocks	Crude protein, fat, fiber, High carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins for livestock	[45]
		14	Vachellia flava (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr.	High crude protein, minerals, for goats, cattle and sheep	[46]
		15	Vachilia oerfota (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr.	Crude protein, minerals for ruminants	[46]
10	Loranthaceae	16	Plicosepalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.) Tiegh.	Essential nutrients that support animal health, for ruminants	[42]
11	Gisekiaceae	17	Gisekia pharnaceoides L.	Rich in carbohydrates and essential fatty acids, for ruminants	[47]
12	Nyctaginaceae	18	Boerhavia diffusa L.	Crude protein, rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, and glycosides, for ruminants	[48]
13	Poaceae	19	Cenchrus ciliaris L.	Protein, mineral, fiber and energy for cattle, goats, sheep and wildlife	[49]
		20	Panicum turgidum Forssk.	Crude protein, mineral content for cattle, goats, and sheep	[50]
14	Salvadoraceae	21	Salvadora persica L.	Vitamin C, fluoride, chloride, for camels, goats and sheep	[51]
15	Zygophyllaceae	22	Zygophyllum simplex L.	Flavonoids, phenolic acids, amino acids and fatty acids for camels	[52]

Figure 4. Some fodder plants found in the study area. (A) Vachellia flava; (B) Cleome pallida; (C) Maerua crassifolia.

Table 4. Famine food plant species at the study area, which are used particularly in regions facing nutritional crises.

Family	Species	Ref.
Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus graecizans L.	[53]
Asclepiadaceae	Sarcostemma forskaolianum (Schult.) Meve & Liede	[54]
	Odontanthera radians (Forssk.) D.V. Field	[55]
Cleomaceae	Cleome gynandra L.	[56]
Euphrobiaceae	Euphorbia cuneata Vahl.	[57]
Fabaceae	Delonix elata (L.) Gamble	[55]
	Tamarindus indica L.	[58]
	Senna italica Mill.	[59]

Figure 5. Some famine food plants found in the study area. (A) Delonix elata; (B) Odontanthera radians; (C) Senna italica.

Table 5. Threatened plant species at the study area, which host endemic and endangered species.

Family	Species	Reasons
Apocynaceae	Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.)	Browsing by camels
Burseraceae	Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C.Chr	Medicinal uses
Fabaceae	Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi	Fuel wood and fodder.
Salvadoraceae	Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir.	Browsing (palatable) by camels.
	Salvadora persica L.	Browsing (palatable) and use as teeth brushes.

4. Discussion

The present study found similar findings in [6] [17]. The study reported findings like those of flora studies in Western K.S.A. [14]-[16]. that Salvadora persica and Dobera glabera had become rare species. This may be alongside browsing, demand, and consideration of the fact that these trees form a good source of income.

Figure 6. Some threatened plants found in the study area. (A) Leptadenia pyrotechnica; (B) Commiphora gileadensis; (C) Salvadora persica.

Some of the families contained only a few species, some containing just one species because of a lack of suitable habitat. The study area is generally sparsely vegetated and has low species diversity. This is especially because of differences in rainfall, overgrazing, excessive use of the resources, and the sand slip drop-off effect. Some wood species are threatened and endangered in the study area. This is probably due to climate change, excessive use, and overgrazing. Some threatened plants found in the study area, including Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Commiphora gileadensis, and Salvadora persica, are presented in Figure 6.

5. Conclusion

The most common families in the study area were Fabaceae and Capparaceae, whereas the most important monocotyledon was Poaceae. The study updated some families, genera, and plant species in the study area. A recently published correction led to these changes. The changed families of the plants were Palmae to Arecaceae, Compositeae to Asteraceae, Leguminoseae to Fabaceae, Labiateae to Lamiaceae, and Gramineae to Poaceae. The Acacia genus underwent a transformation into two genres: Vachellia and Senegalia. The species that underwent changes included Gynandropis gynandra, which became Cleome gynandra, Dipterygium glaucum, which became Cleome pallida, Acacia ehrenbergiana, which became Vachellia flava, and Acacia nubica, which became Vachellia oerfota.

6. Recommendation

The conservation of plant species in the study area is a priority for conserving and improving a variety of biodiversity. Additionally, efforts at preservation should be targeted toward plant species of economic and medicinal importance. For their long-term survival, this species must be reseeded and replanted. Moreover, educational programs must be implemented for the given population to convey the significance of the subjects in the study as a principal national resource. The current situation demands the combined efforts of researchers, policymakers, and local communities to adopt a socio-ecological approach for achieving sustainability in arid land.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

[1]	Ghazanfar, S.A. (2024) Biogeography and Conservation in the Arabian Peninsula: A Present Perspective. Plants, 13, Article 2091. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13152091
[2]	Hegazy, A. and Lovett-Doust, J. (2016) Plant Ecology in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199660810.001.0001
[3]	Ahmed, B.Y.M. (1997) Climatic Classification of Saudi Arabia: An Application of Factor—Cluster Analysis. GeoJournal, 41, 69-84. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1006827322880
[4]	Almarri, N.B., Ahmad, S. and Elshal, M.H. (2024) Diversity and Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources in Saudi Arabia. In: Al-Khayri, J.M., Jain, S.M. and Penna, S., Eds., Sustainable Development and Biodiversity, Springer, 1009-1031. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5245-8_29
[5]	Collenette, S. (1998) A Checklist of Botanical Species in Saudi Arabia. International Asclepiad Society.
[6]	Collenette, S. (1985) An Illustrated Guide to the Flowers of Saudi Arabia (No. 1). Scorpion.
[7]	Chaudhary, S.A. and Al-Jowaid, A.A.A. (1999) Vegetation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
[8]	Migahid, A. (1988) Flora of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 1. 574.
[9]	Al-Khamis, H.H., Al-Hemaid, F.M. and Ibrahim, A.S.S. (2012) Diversity of Perennial Plants at Ibex Reserve in Saudi Arabia. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 22, 484-492.
[10]	Chaudhary, S.A. (1989) Grasses of Saudi Arabia. National Herbarium. National Agriculture and Water Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture and Water.
[11]	Chaudhary, S.A. (2000) Flora of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Illustrated: Volume II (Part 3). Ministry of Agriculture & Water, National Herbarium.
[12]	Chaudhary, S.A. and Al-Waṭanīyah, M. (2001) Flora of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Illustrated.
[13]	Masrahi, Y.S. (2012) The Illustrated Guide to the Wild Plants of Jazan Region.
[14]	Daur, I. (2012) Plant Flora in the Rangeland of Western Saudi Arabia. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 44, 23-26.
[15]	Elsafori, A.K. (2018) Contribution to the Flora of Hada Elsham Area, Western K.S.A, with Special Reference to Their Uses. Journal of Agriculture and Crops, 4, 78-81. https://doi.org/10.32861/jac.47.78.81
[16]	Abdulshakur, J.A. (2024) Assessment of Natural Vegetation Cover at the Vicinity of Makkah City, Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Abdulaziz University: Meteorology, Environment & Arid Land Agriculture Sciences, 33, 47-62.
[17]	Chaudhary, P.M., Jasmin, A., Eby, M.T. and Hood, L. (1999) Modulation of the NF-κB Pathway by Virally Encoded Death Effector Domains-Containing Proteins. Oncogene, 18, 5738-5746. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1202976
[18]	Gamal, E.E.G., Khalifa, S.A.K., Gameel, A.S. and Emad, M.A. (2010) Traditional Medicinal Plants Indigenous to Al-Rass Province, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 4, 2680-2683. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr09.556
[19]	Ullah, R., Alqahtani, A.S., Noman, O.M.A., Alqahtani, A.M., Ibenmoussa, S. and Bourhia, M. (2020) A Review on Ethno-Medicinal Plants Used in Traditional Medicine in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 27, 2706-2718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.06.020
[20]	Kumar, N., Ahmad, A.H., Gopal, A., Batra, M., Pant, D. and Srinivasu, M. (2023) A Study of Polyphenolic Compounds and in Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. Extracts. Indian Journal of Animal Research, 57, 565-571. https://doi.org/10.18805/ijar.b-5069
[21]	Kumari, D., Singh, D., Meena, M., Janmeda, P. and Siddiqui, M.H. (2024) Qualitative, Quantitative, in Vitro Antioxidant Activity and Chemical Profiling of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (forssk.) Decne Using Advanced Analytical Techniques. Antioxidants, 13, Article 794. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13070794
[22]	Qari, S.H., Alrefaei, A.F., Filfilan, W. and Qumsani, A. (2021) Exploration of the Medicinal Flora of the Aljumum Region in Saudi Arabia. Applied Sciences, 11, Article 7620. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167620
[23]	Sher, H. and Alyemeni, M.N. (2011) Pharmaceutically Important Plants Used in Traditional System of Arab Medicine for the Treatment of Livestock Ailments in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. African Journal of Biotechnology, 10, 9153-9159. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajb10.1570
[24]	Shadid, K.A., Shakya, A.K., Naik, R.R., Al-Qaisi, T.S., Oriquat, G.A., Atoom, A.M., et al. (2023) Exploring the Chemical Constituents, Antioxidant, Xanthine Oxidase and COX Inhibitory Activity of Commiphora gileadensis Commonly Grown Wild in Saudi Arabia. Molecules, 28, Article 2321. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28052321
[25]	Remesh, M., Al Faify, E.A., Alfaifi, M.M., Al Abboud, M.A., Ismail, K.S., Al-Namazi, A.A., et al. (2023) Ethnobotanical Survey of Medicinal Plants Native to the Mountains of Jazan, Southwestern Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 10, 218-227. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2023.09.024
[26]	Abdel-Kader, M.S., Hazazi, A.M.A., Elmakki, O.A. and Alqasoumi, S.I. (2018) A Survey on Traditional Plants Used in Al Khobah Village. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 26, 817-821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2018.04.001
[27]	Alothyqi, N., Almalki, M., Albqa’ai, M., Alsamiri, H., Alrashdi, S.M., Ibraheem, F. and Osman, G.H.E. (2016) In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Four Saudi Medicinal Plants. Journal of Microbial & Biochemical Technology, 8, 83-89
[28]	Elmeged, L.S.M.A. and Alghamdi, A.A.A. (2024) Evaluation of the Renal Protective Effects of Cyperus at Varying Concentrations in a Rat Model of Kidney Disorders. Uttar Pradesh Journal of Zoology, 45, 487-499. https://doi.org/10.56557/upjoz/2024/v45i194553
[29]	Al-Asmari, A., Manthiri, R.A., Abdo, N., Al-Duaiji, F.A. and Khan, H.A. (2017) Saudi Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Scorpion Sting Envenomation. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 24, 1204-1211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.10.010
[30]	Al-Taweel, A.M., Abdel-Kader, M.S., Fawzy, G.A., Perveen, S., Maher, H.M., Alzoman, N.Z., Al-Shehri, M.M., Aljohar, H.I. and Al-Showiman, H. (2015) Isolation of Flavonoids from Delonix elata and Determination of Its Rutin Content Using Capillary Electrophoresis. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 28, 1897-1903. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26525033
[31]	Towanou, R., Konmy, B., Yovo, M., Dansou, C.C., Dougnon, V., Loko, F.S., et al. (2023) Phytochemical Screening, Antioxidant Activity, and Acute Toxicity Evaluation of Senna Italica Extract Used in Traditional Medicine. Journal of Toxicology, 2023, Article ID: 6405415. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6405415
[32]	Al-Sodany, Y.M., Salih, A.B. and Mosallam, H.A. (2013) Medicinal Plants in Saudi Arabia: I. Sarrwat Mountains at Taif, KSA. Academic Journal of Plant Sciences, 6, 134-145.
[33]	El-Said, H., Ashgar, S.S., Bader, A., AlQathama, A., Halwani, M., Ascrizzi, R., et al. (2021) Essential Oil Analysis and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Three Aromatic Plant Species Growing in Saudi Arabia. Molecules, 26, Article 959. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26040959
[34]	Youssef, S.A. (2013) Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Uses of Some Plants Found in the Middle Region of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 7, 2501-2517.
[35]	Javid, S., Chaudhari, S.K., Munir, I., Amjad, M.S., Akbar, K.F., Yasmeen, F., et al. (2019) Plant Metabolites and Pharmacological Activities of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (forssk.) Decne. In: Akhtar, M., Swamy, M. and Sinniah, U., Eds., Natural Bio-active Compounds, Springer, 551-560. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7154-7_19
[36]	Pershin, S.I. and Shevtsov, S.A. (2020) Fodder Product for Productive Farm Animals and Poultry.
[37]	Mahla, H.R., Rathore, V.S., Singh, D. and Singh, J.P. (2012) Capparis decidua (forsk.) Edgew.: An Underutilized Multipurpose Shrub of Hot Arid Region—Distribution, Diversity and Utilization. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 60, 385-394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-012-9934-3
[38]	Bounou Madja, R., Kamal Abdou Habou, M., Idrissa, I., Djibo Moussa, I., Morou, B. and Mahamane, A. (2023) Evaluations de la biomasse fourragere foliaire et de la composition chimique des feuilles dun ligneuxfourrager sahelien: Maerua. Crassifoliaforssk. International Journal of Advanced Research, 11, 879-889. https://doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/18054
[39]	Chanu, T.B. and Singh, C. (2022) Tree Fodder Production to Bridging the Gap between the Need and Availability of Animal Fodder. Indian Forester, 148, 494. https://doi.org/10.36808/if/2022/v148i5/154734
[40]	Yangyang, Z. (2020) Fodder Feeding Device for Animal Husbandry.
[41]	Fernandes Pinto, M.M., Gonçalves, J.D.S., Souza, I.T.D.N., Batista, N.V., Lima Melo, V.L., Firmino, S.S., et al. (2019) Utilização do melão (Cucumis melo L.) na alimentação de ruminantes: Uma revisão. Brazilian Journal of Development, 5, 31466-31481. https://doi.org/10.34117/bjdv5n12-240
[42]	Jamala, G.Y. (2013) The Scope and Potentials of Fodder Trees and Shrubs in Agroforestry. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 5, 11-17. https://doi.org/10.9790/2380-0541117
[43]	Abdalgader, S.I.A. and Ahmed, A.I. (2019) Amino Acids Profile and Protein Functional Properties of Chrozophora oblongifolia Seeds from Kordofan Region, Sudan. Tropical Drylands, 3, 17-21. https://doi.org/10.13057/tropdrylands/t030103
[44]	Sari, Y.C., Nanda, S., Mardiah, F.P. and Yunita, R. (2022) Pengembangan leguminosa indigofera sebagai pakan ternak di nagari batu payung kecamatan lareh sago halaban kabupaten lima puluh kota. Buletin ilmiah nagari membangun, 5, 108-117. https://doi.org/10.25077/bina.v5i2.374
[45]	Kalidass, C. and Mohan, V.R. (2012) Biochemical Composition and Nutritional Assessment of Selected Under-Utilized Food Legume of the Genus Rhynchosia. International Food Research Journal, 19, 977-984. https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20133248974
[46]	Gebeyew, K. (2015) Review on the Nutritive Value of Some Selected Acacia Species for Livestock Production in Dryland Areas. Advances in Dairy Research, 3, Article ID: 1000139. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-888x.1000139
[47]	Otsyina, R.M., Norton, B.W. and Djimde, M. (1999) Fodder Trees and Shrubs in Arid and Semi-Arid Livestock Production Systems. Association Management Center, 429-438. https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:151196
[48]	Shukla, A. and Gupta, R.K. (2012) Effect of the Aqueous Extract of Boerhavia Difusa Roots and Leaves of Hypoglycemic as Well as Immuno Support Activity. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 1, 62-65. http://www.isca.in/IJBS/Archive/v1i6/11.ISCA-IRJBS-2012-153.pdf
[49]	Martinez-Lopez, J.R., Gutierrez-Ornelas, E., Barrera-Silva, M.A. and Retes-Lopez, R. (2014) Simulacion estocastica para praderas de pasto buffel (Cenchrus ciliaris L.) en marin, N. L., mexico. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 17, 87-104. https://doi.org/10.56369/tsaes.1797
[50]	Abd_Allah, E.F., Tabassum, B., A. Alqarawi, A., Alshahrani, T.S., Malik, J.A. and Hashem, A. (2019) Physiological Markers Mitigate Drought Stress in Panicum Turgidum Forssk. by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 51, 2003-2011. https://doi.org/10.30848/pjb2019-6(12)
[51]	Kumar, D. and Sharma, P.K. (2021) Traditional Use, Phytochemicals and Pharmacological Activity of Salvadora persica: A Review. Current Nutrition & Food Science, 17, 302-309. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573401316999200807205224
[52]	Ezeagu, I.E., Akinsoyinu, A. and Tarawali, G. (2013) Nutritional Factors in Some Fodder Legume Trees and Shrubs. Nigerian Journal of Animal Science, 15, 191-198.
[53]	Jimoh, M.O., Afolayan, A.J. and Lewu, F.B. (2018) Suitability of Amaranthus Species for Alleviating Human Dietary Deficiencies. South African Journal of Botany, 115, 65-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2018.01.004
[54]	Saini, K., Shrivastava, N. and Sharma, P.K. (2023) Plants Used as a Famine Food by Mongiya Tribe in District Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan, India. International Journal of Advanced Research, 11, 1584-1586. https://doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/16181
[55]	do Nascimento, V.T. and Campos, L.Z.D.O. (2021) Famine Foods: Thoughts from a Caatinga Research Experience. In: Jacob, M.C.M. and Albuquerque, U.P., Eds., Local Food Plants of Brazil, Springer, 161-176. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69139-4_9
[56]	Mashamaite, C.V., Manyevere, A. and Chakauya, E. (2022) Cleome gynandra: A Wonder Climate-Smart Plant for Nutritional Security for Millions in Semi-Arid Areas. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, Article 1003080. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1003080
[57]	Awaad, S.A., Alothman, M.R., Zain, Y.M., Alqasoumi, S.I. and Alothman, E.A. (2017) Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis for Standardization of Euphorbia cuneata Vahl. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 25, 1175-1178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2017.08.001
[58]	Ebifa-Othieno, E., Mugisha, A., Nyeko, P. and Kabasa, J.D. (2017) Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices in Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) Use and Conservation in Eastern Uganda. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 13, Article No. 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0133-8
[59]	Lal, R.K., Chanotiya, C.S. and Kumar, A. (2023) The Prospects and Potential of the Horticultural and Pharmacological Medicinal Herb Senna (cassia Angustifolia Vahl.): A Review. Technology in Horticulture, 3, Article No. 20. https://doi.org/10.48130/tih-2023-0020