Psychology
2013. Vol.4, No.11, 813-822
Published Online November 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/psych) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2013.411117
Open Access 813
Do Positive School Experiences and Preference for American
Culture Moderate the Association between School-Based Ethnic
Discrimination and Mental Health for Filipino American
Adolescents?
Tzu-Fen Chang1*, Eun-Jin Han2, Esther E. Onaga1, M. Brent Donnellan3
1Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA
2Department of Social Welfare, Seoul Women’s University, Seoul, South Korea
3Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA
Received August 7th, 2013; revised September 8th, 2013; accepted October 6th, 2013
Copyright © 2013 Tzu-Fen Chang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.
This study examines short-term and longitudinal associations between school-based discrimination and
mental health, (i.e., self-esteem and depression) and the moderating roles of “preference for American
culture” and positive school experiences, for 684 Filipino American adolescents drawn from the Children
of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS). Our findings suggest that school-based discrimination predicted
increased levels of depression and lower levels of self-esteem in short-term but not in long-term. The short-
term negative associations between discrimination and mental health were not moderated by levels of
preference for American culture, and positive school experiences decrease the negative association be-
tween discrimination and self-esteem. Implications from this study are discussed.
Keywords: Filipino American Adolescents; Discrimination; Mental Health; Cultural Preference; School
Experiences
Introduction
Filipino American adolescents are underrepresented in the
mental health literature (David & Okazaki, 2006; Nadal, 2009),
even though Filipino Americans are the third-largest Asian
American ethnic group in the US, totaling 2.56 million indi-
viduals (US Census, 2010). Despite the large number of Fili-
pino Americans residing in the US, they are frequently describ-
ed as the “invisible minorities” (Cimmarusti, 1996). Filipino
Americans experience higher rates of perceived ethnic discri-
mination than other major Asian American ethnic groups (Gee,
Spencer, Chen, Yip, & Takeuchi, 2007) and are under repre-
sented in mental health research. Gee and colleagues (2009)
link mental health outcomes with perceived discrimination ex-
periences. However, there has been little investigation on the
short-term and long-term mental health consequences of these
negative experiences on Filipino Americans. In addition, little
is known about acculturation or school experience roles as mo-
derators of perceived discrimination on the short-term and long-
term mental health of this group. This paper addresses these re-
search gaps through data drawn from the Children of Immi-
grants Longitudinal Study (CILS; Portes & Rumbaut, 1991-
2006).
Prior research using the CILS data examined mental health
by examining two key cognitive and affective dimensions of
psychosocial adaptation—self-esteem and depression. Rumbaut
(1997) found that among all different nationalities examined in
Wave I (1992) of the CILS, only the Filipinos (and Vietnamese)
showed statistically significant lower self-esteem scores. They
also showed higher depression scores, especially among the fe-
male students.
The CILS dataset offers the opportunity to examine longitu-
dinal associations between perceived discrimination and mental
health. We targeted school-based experiences because ethnic
discrimination is prevalent among Asian American children in
this setting (Gee et al., 2009). The study investigates the moder-
ating effects of “preference for American culture” (one of the
major indicators of acculturation) and school experiences on
both short-term and long-term associations between discrimina-
tory experiences and mental health. Investigating whether these
factors moderate mental health outcomes (both short-term and
long-term) would render valuable, practical interventions with
this population.
Literature Review
Filipino Americans
Filipino Americans are distinctive from other Asian Ameri-
can groups because “they are the only Asian American group
that experienced direct American colonization” (David & Oka-
zaki, 2006: p. 5). With this history of colonization, first and se-
*Corresponding author.

T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
cond generation Filipino Americans have a deep connection
with American culture and possess English skills (Nadal, 2009),
which leads to an underlying assumption that Filipino Ameri-
cans can more easily adapt to and acculturate into the American
society than other Asian Americans of similar generational
groups. On the contrary, scholars have noted that the assump-
tion based on their distinctive history is likely to mask true ad-
justment difficulties (Gee et al., 2009; Rumbaut, 1996; Wolf,
1997). For example, in a large-scale immigrant survey (Rum-
baut, 1996), two-thirds of the Filipino adolescent respondents
reported perceiving ethnic discrimination. The 2007 California
Health Interview Survey also showed that almost half of Fili-
pinos experienced less respect due to their race or accent in
their speech in the past year and 50% of the discrimination
within their lifetime occurred in educational settings (as cited in
Gee et al., 2009).
Ethnic Discrimination and Mental Health in Filipino
American Adolescents
Exposure to ethnic discrimination can produce multiple det-
rimental effects on ethnic minority adolescents’ mental health,
such as depression, low self-esteem, low self-efficacy, and an-
xiety (Gee et al., 2009). Few studies have examined the Filipino
adolescent population in this area. Rumbaut (1996) found that
Filipino adolescents who experienced ethnic discrimination were
more susceptible to depressive symptoms. In an in-depth quail-
tative study, Wolf (1997) suggests that experiences of ethnic di-
scrimination and inequality account for why some Filipino
American adolescents suffer from psychological maladjustment
(e.g., anxiety and depression) that further leads to increased sui-
cidal ideation.
Prior research did not pay much attention to the long-term
associations between ethnic discrimination and mental health
among Filipino adolescents, with the exception of Ying and
Han’s (2006) study in which they found that current perception
of school-based ethnic discrimination, and not past school-bas-
ed experiences of discrimination, predicted levels of depres-
sion.
Some features distinguish our study from Ying and Han’s
study. First, we examined the associations of ethnic discrimina-
tion not only with depression but also with self-esteem in short-
and long-term outcomes. Second, while Ying and Han’s (2006)
study examined school-based discrimination on middle adoles-
cence (Mage = 14.12 years), we examined this phenomenon for
late adolescence (Mage = 17.13 years). Third, our study exam-
ined the role of potential moderators, i.e., preference for Ame-
rican culture (one of the major indicators of acculturation) and
school experiences, for associations of discrimination with de-
pression and self-esteem.
Acculturation as a Moderator
Empirical findings have been mixed regarding whether host-
culture orientation serves as a buffer or an exacerbator in mo-
derating the negative associations between discrimination and
mental health of ethnic minority adolescents. One line of re-
search suggests that higher levels of orientation toward the host
culture alleviate the negative associations between discrimina-
tion and mental health, e.g., less depression among Somali male
adolescent refugees (Ellis et al., 2010) and higher self-esteem
among American Indian female adolescents (Galliher, Jones, &
Dahl, 2010). This line of research can be interpreted with the
lens of social identity theory (Turner, Brown, & Tajfel, 1979),
in which holding a positive view toward a particular social
group can contribute to strong identification with the group and
further benefit psychological or externalized functioning. Ac-
cordingly, individuals with ahigh orientation toward the host
culture might be less susceptible to the harm of ethnic discri-
mination given that they can easily seek social resources/sup-
ports of the host society to counteract these discriminatory en-
counters.
Another line of research based on cognitive dissonance the-
ory (Festinger, 1957) resulted in opposite findings. This theory
posits that two discordant cognitions can expose individuals to
psychological maladjustment. Based on this theory, adolescents
who are highly oriented toward the host culture but also feel di-
scriminated are likely to produce two competing cognitions:
They are insiders due to high acculturation versus they are fo-
reigners due to discrimination. The two dissonant beliefs can
aggravate adolescents’ psychological maladjustment as shown
by findings of Latino and Chinese American adolescents stu-
dies (Brenner & Kim, 2009; Umanã-Taylor & Updegraff,
2007).
To our understanding, no research thus far has focused on
acculturation as a moderator for Filipino American adolescents.
Doing so would therefore be worthy to enhance our under-
standing on whether high orientation toward the host culture
plays as a protector or an exacerbator in moderating associa-
tions between discrimination and mental health for Filipino
population. This looks at one indicator of acculturation—pref-
erence for American culture measured in this dataset.
School Experiences as a Moderator
The integrative model on developmental competencies of
minority children highlights children’s experiences in a micro-
system, such as in school (Garcia et al., 1996). Our focus is
then on whether the school environment conveys friendly mes-
sages and experiences for minority children, positively influ-
encing their psychosocial and behavioral development. The
adolescents’ perceptions of having positive school experiences
(e.g., school safety, a good learning environment, and positive
peer/teacher relations) benefit Asian American adolescents’ men-
tal health, e.g., less depression, less social stress and anxiety,
and higher self-esteem (Lei, 2003; Way & Robison, 2003). An
analysis of the data drawn from the CILS also reveals that
youths attending schools they perceived as unsafe displayed
significantly lower self-esteem and higher depressive symptoms
compared to those attending schools they perceived as safe
(Rumbaut, 2005). Other research shows that these positive per-
ceptions of the school environment might mitigate Asian Ame-
rican children’s perceptions of negative encounters of discri-
mination and racism due to their minority status (Lee, 2003).
However, no research has yet examined whether positive school
experiences can mitigate the negative associations between eth-
nic discrimination and mental health in Filipino Americans.
This study is directed to narrow this research gap by examining
the moderating effect of school experiences, i.e., students’ per-
ceptions of school safety and learning environment.
Hypotheses
Several hypotheses are tested in this paper. First, school-
based discrimination, both past (at Wave I) and current (at
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T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
Wave II), would significantly predict increased levels of de-
pression and lower levels of self-esteem in Filipino American
adolescents. Several studies on ethnic minority children have
shown that exposure to discrimination can predict poor mental
health, e.g., more depression and low self-esteem among Chi-
nese Americans (Juang & Cookston, 2009) and African Ameri-
cans (Brody et al., 2006) in both short-term and long-term.
Previous findings on ethnic minority children have been mix-
ed with respect to the moderating effects of preference for
American culture (e.g., Benner & Kim, 2009; Ellis et al., 2010;
Galliher et al., 2010; Umanã-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007). Thus
we do not postulate whether levels of preference act as a buffer
or as an exacerbator for either short-term or long-term associa-
tions of discrimination with levels of depression and self-es-
teem.
With respect to the moderating effects of school experiences,
due to the protective roles played by positive school environ-
ments, we hypothesized that positive school experiences would
buffer the negative associations of discrimination with depres-
sion and self-esteem. Specifically, positive school experiences
would (a) decrease the positive associations of both past and
current discrimination with levels of depression; and (b) de-
crease the negative associations of both past and current dis-
crimination with levels of self-esteem.
Method
Participants
The Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS; Portes
& Rumbaut, 1991-2006) data examined adjustment processes
of first and second generation immigrants with origins from
Asia and Latin America in three Waves. In the Wave I, adoles-
cents in 8th and 9th grades from all public and private schools
in San Diego and Miami were recruited. Recruitment criteria
included adolescents born in the United States who had at least
one parent born abroad and those who were foreign-born and
have resided in the United States for at least five years. The
total sample consisted of 5262 adolescents at Wave I and 4288
adolescents (81.5% of the original sample) at the Wave II.
Wave III involved a sample that reached early adulthood, with
an average age of 24 years of age, but this study examined only
data collected at Waves I and II.
At Wave I, 819 Filipino American adolescents participated in
the CILS, and 724 of the original adolescents participated in the
follow-up study at Wave II. The majority of respondents (98.7%)
were drawn from San Diego at Wave I. This study analyzed
only those participating in the follow-up study and those re-
porting depression, self-esteem, and school-based discrimina-
tion experiences at both Waves, yielding the final sample of
676 adolescents. Of the sample, the proportion of males (50.1%)
and females (49.9%) were almost equal. At Wave I, their mean
age was 14.13 years (SD = .78) and their mean grade level was
8.54 (SD = .50). Over half of the participants (57.3%) were
born in the United States, 38.4% were born in Philippines,
while the rest (4.3%) were born in other countries (e.g., in Eu-
rope or Asia). Those born in Philippines or in other countries
were collapsed into the category of first generation, while those
born in the United States were second generation. The average
age of migration for the first-generation participants was 6.70
years (SD = 4.67). With respect to socioeconomic status (SES),
3.2% were wealthy, 45.4% were upper-middle class, 39.5% were
lower-middle class, 10.6% were working-class, .3% were poor,
and the remaining (1%) were missing. SES was reported by
adolescents at Wave I. For parental education, 33.7% of fathers
and 26.9% of mothers received a high school degree or below,
while 56.6% of fathers and 63.8% of mothers were university-
educated or beyond. The remaining parents (9.7% of fathers
and 9.3% of mothers) did not report their educational level.
Measures
Depression. Depression was measured by four items from
Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scales (CES-D;
Radloff, 1977) for Wave I and Wave II. These items included:
How often have you felt this way during the past week? “I felt
sad”, “I could not get going”, “I didn’t feel like eating; my ap-
petite was poor”, and “I felt depressed”. Responses were scored
on a 4-point scale on which: 0 = rarely; 1 = some of the time; 2
= occasionally; 3 = most of the time. The four items were
summed and averaged to yield the mean level of depression.
The alpha reliability of this scale was .74 at Wave I and .76 at
Wave II. The reliability and validity of the CESD-4 have been
found to be sufficient in comparison with the full 20-item
CESD (Melchior, Huba, Brown, & Reback, 1993).
Self-Esteem. In both Waves, levels of self-esteem were meas-
ured by Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem scale (1979) with ten items.
Examples of items were as follows: “I am a person of worth”,
“I do things as well as other people”, and “I do not have much
to be proud of”. Responses were scored on a 4-point scale on
which: 0 = disagrees a lot; 1 = disagrees a little; 2 = agrees a
little; 3 = agrees a lot. Five items were worded negatively and
five items were worded positively. We reverse-weighted the ne-
gatively phrased items, and summed and averaged all the items
to yield the mean level of self-esteem. The alpha reliability of
this scale in the present study was .81 at Wave I and .84 at
Wave II.
School-Based Discrimination. School-based discrimination
included three kinds of discrimination in school settings: tea-
cher discrimination, peer discrimination, and counselor discri-
mination. In both waves, adolescents answered the question:
“Have you ever felt discriminated against by teachers?” Simi-
larly, adolescents separately responded to the questions related
to “whether you have ever felt discriminated against by peers”
and “whether you have ever felt discriminated against by coun-
selors.” Each response was coded as dichotomous variables (0
= No and 1 = Yes) and then summed. School-based ethnic dis-
crimination score was based on the study conducted by Ying
and Han (2006).
Preference for American Culture. Orientation toward the
host society was assessed by levels of preference for doing
things the American way as reported at Wave II. Adolescents
only answered one question: “How often do you prefer Ameri-
can ways of doing things?” This item was scored on a 4-point
scale on which: 0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = most of the time,
and 3 = all the time. One study using the CILS data identified
this item as the indicator of levels of acculturation (Ying & Han,
2007). In this study, we focus on this indicator of acculturation.
School Experiences. At Wave II, school experiences meas-
ured participants’ perceptions of school safety and the learning
environment. The results of the factor analysis indicated the
two-dimensional structure of the perceived school experiences
scale. The first extracted factor was correlated with items as-
sessing school discipline, grading fairness, and teachers’ atti-
tudes. The second extracted factor was highly correlated with
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T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
three items: “Don’t feel safe in school” (r = .52, p < .001),
“Students disruptions prevent learning” (r = .53, p < .001), and
“Many gangs in school” (r = .55, p < .001). This study focuses
on the second factor. Responses were scored on a 4-point scale
on which: 0 = disagrees a lot; 1 = disagrees a little; 2 = agrees a
little; 3 = agrees a lot. The scores of all items were reversely
coded for further analyses and convenience of interpretation.
All the items were summed and averaged to yield the mean
level of school experiences. Higher scores represent more posi-
tive school experiences. The alpha reliability of this scale in the
present study was .54.
Results
Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. Participants
reported low levels of depression and school-based discrimina-
tion at Waves I and II, as indicated by scores below midpoint of
item range. Participants reported high levels of self-esteem at
both waves and high levels of preference for American culture,
as indicated by scores beyond midpoint of item range. Their
school experiences were moderately positive given that the mean
was close to the midpoint of item range.
Analyses
Before testing the study hypotheses, we explored the rela-
tions between demographic variables and the study variables.
Compared to the male adolescents, the female adolescents re-
ported higher levels of depression at Wave I and Wave II
(ts(674) = 6.21 and 5.49, ps < .001 and .001, respectively),
lower levels of self-esteem at Wave I and Wave II (ts(674) =
3.62 and 2.15, ps < .001 and = .034, respectively), and more
positive school experiences at Wave II (t(674) = 2.44, p = .014).
Compared to the first-generation adolescents, the second-gen-
eration adolescents reported higher levels of preference for
American culture at Wave II (t(674) = 2.68, p = .008). Grade
point average (GPA) was significantly and positively correlated
with levels of self-esteem at Wave I and Wave II (rs(674) = .25
and .16, ps < .001 and .001, respectively) and school experi-
ences at Wave II (r(674) = .14, p < .001). Based on prior re-
search (Umanã-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007) and initial analyses,
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics of the major variables.
Range
Variable M SD Potential Actual
Depression WI .67 .63 0 - 3 .0 - 3.0
Depression WII .72 .65 0 - 3 .0 - 3.0
Self-esteem WI 2.26 .49 0 - 3 .40 - 3.0
Self-esteem WII 2.42 .51 0 - 3 .80 - 3.0
School-based
discrimination WI .57 .77 0 - 3 .0 - 3.0
School-based
discrimination WII .70 .87 0 - 3 .0 - 3.0
Preference for American
culture at WII 2.14 .89 0 - 3 .0 - 3.0
School experiences WII 1.67 .68 0 - 3 .0 - 3.0
regression analyses controlled for covariates including gender,
generational status, GPA, age, and SES. SES is the unit-weight-
ed standardized scale as created by Portes and Rumbaut (1991-
2006). We used single dummy codes for gender (1 = female)
and generational status (1 = first generation). In addition, when
examining the discrimination-adjustment link, prior research
controlled for the past levels of adjustment (Benner & Kim,
2009; Brody et al., 2006). Thus, to test associations between
past or current discriminatory experiences and depression and
self-esteem, respective levels at Wave I were controlled.
Four separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses exa-
mined the associations of past and current school-based dis-
crimination with depression and self-esteem. Four regression
models were implemented for each regression analysis. In Mo-
del 1, we entered the previously-mentioned controlled variables.
Model 2 tested associations of past or current school-based dis-
crimination with mental health at Wave II, given that covariates
were statically controlled. To test associations of past discrimi-
natory experiences with depression and self-esteem, school-ba-
sed discrimination at Wave I was entered. To test associations
of current discriminatory experiences with depression and self-
esteem, school-based discrimination at Wave II was entered. In
Model 3, preference for American culture and school experi-
ences were entered as a block. Model 4 tested moderating ef-
fects of preference for American culture and school experiences
on links between discrimination and mental health.
To test associations of past discriminatory experiences with-
depression and self-esteem, two interactions were entered as a
block: school-based discrimination at Wave I by preference for
American culture and school-based discrimination at Wave I by
school experiences. To test associations of current discrimina-
tory experiences with depression and self-esteem, two interac-
tions were entered as a block: school-based discrimination at
Wave II by preference for American culture and school-based
discrimination at Wave II by school experiences.
Based on Cohen and colleagues’ recommendations (2003),
school-based discrimination Waves I and II, preference for
American culture at Wave II, and school experiences at Wave
II were centered on their means to decrease multicollinearity.
ΔR2 and Fchange were computed between the main-effect model
(Model 3) and the moderator model (Model 4). For the interac-
tion model (i.e., Model 4), ΔR2 and its level of significance
provided information on what percentage of additional variance
interaction effects accounted for depression and self-esteem at
Wave II. When ΔR2 of any model was not significant, the fol-
lowing model was not conducted.
Test of Associations b etween Past School-B a sed
Discrimination and Mental Health
Association between School-Based Discriminatory Experi-
ences at Wave I and Depression at Wave II. Results are shown
in Table 2. In Model 1, levels of depression at Wave II was
positively and significantly predicted by levels of depression at
Wave I (β = .30, p < .001), gender (being female) (β = .17, p
< .001), and SES (β = .10, p = .009), but was negatively and
significantly predicted by GPA (β = −.10, p = .008). Contrary
to our hypothesis, school-based discrimination with covariates
controlled did not significantly predict depression at Wave II
(see Model 2). The long-term association between school-based
iscrimination and depression was not significant. Because ΔR2 d
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T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
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Table 2.
Hierarchical multiple regression testing the associations of school-based discrimination at Wave I with depression at Wave II and self-esteem at Wave
II.
Model 1 Model 2
Variable B (SE) β B (SE) β
Outcome variable: Depression at Wave II
Depression at Wave I .31***(.04) .30 .31***(.04) .30
Gender (1 = female) .22***(.05) .17 .22***(.05) .17
Age −.02(.03) −.03 −.02(.03) −.03
SES .13**(.05) .10 .13**(.05) .10
Generational status (1 = first generation) .06(.05) .05 .06(.05) .05
GPA −.08**(.03) −.10 −.08**(.03) −.10
School-based discrimination at Wave I −.02(.03) −.02
Intercept .65 .67
F 19.71*** 16.92***
R2 .15 .15
Fchange .35
∆R2 .00
Outcome variable: Self-esteem at Wave II
Self-esteem at Wave I .39***(.04) .38 .39***(.04) .38
Gender (1 = female) −.06(.04) −.06 −.06(.04) −.06
Age .00(.02) .00 .00(.02) .00
SES −.05(.04) −.05 −.05(.04) −.05
Generational status
(
1 = first
g
eneration
)
.05(.04) .05 .05(.04) .05
GPA .06*(.02) .09 .06*(.02) .09
School-based discrimination at Wave I −.01(.02) −.01
Intercept 1.49*** 1.50***
F 23.45*** 20.08***
R2 .17 .17
Fchange .07
∆R2 .00
Note: *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (two-tailed tests).
of Model 2 was not significant, we did not conduct the follow-
ing regressions to test moderating effects of preference for
American culture and school experiences.
Association between school-based discriminatory experi-
ences at Wave I and self-esteem at Wave II. Results are shown
in Table 2. In Model 1, levels of self-esteem at Wave I (β = .38,
p < .001) and GPA (β = .09, p = .015) positively and signifi-
cantly predicted levels of self-esteem at Wave II. Contrary to
our hypothesis, school-based discrimination at Wave I with
controlled covariates did not significantly predict self-esteem at
Wave II (see Model 2). The long-term association between
school-based discrimination and self-esteem was not signifi-
cant. Because ΔR2 of Model 2 was not significant, we did not
conduct the following regressions to test moderating effects of
preference for American culture and school experiences.
Associations between Current School-Based
Discrimination and Mental Healt h and Moderating
Effects
Association between Current School-Based Discriminatory
Experiences at Wave II and Depression at Wave II. Results are
shown in Table 3. Model 1 results were the same as those
shown in Model 1 to test the association between past school-

T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
based discrimination and depression at Wave II. In Model 2,
school-based discrimination at Wave II (β = .16, p < .001) with
controlled covariates positively and significantly predicted de-
pression at Wave II (see Table 3). This finding was consistent
with our hypothesis that the short-term, school-based discrimi-
nation significantly predicted higher levels of depression.
Model 3 shows that levels of depression at Wave II were ne-
gatively and significantly predicted by school experiences at
Table 3.
Hierarchical multiple regression testing the associations of school-based discrimination at Wave II with depression at Wave II and self-esteem at
Wave II.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
variable B (SE) β B (SE) β B (SE) β B (SE) β
Outcome variable: Depression at Wave II
Depression at Wave I .31***(.04) .30 .30***(.04) .29 .27***(.04) .27 .28***(.04) .27
Gender (1 = female) .22***(.05) .17 .23***(.05) .18 .25***(.05) .19 .25***(.05) .19
Age −.02(.03) −.03 −.02(.03) −.02 −.02(.03) −.03 −.02(.03) −.02
SES .13**(.05) .10 .14**(.05) .10 .13**(.05) .10 .13**(.05) .10
Generational status (1 = Foreign-Born) .06(.05) .05 .06(.05) .04 .05(.05) .04 .04(.05) .03
GPA −.08**(.03) −.10 −.09**(.03) −.11 −.07*(.03) −.09 −.08**(.03) −.10
SD at Wave II .12***(.03) .16 .11***(.03) .12 .11***(.03) .14
PAC .03(.04) .03 .04(.04) .04
SE −.15***(.03) −.16 −.15***(.03) −.16
SD at Wave II× PAC .06(.04) .05
SD at Wave II× SE −.01(.04) −.01
Intercept .65 .50 .78 .73
F 19.71*** 20.29*** 18.47*** 15.27***
R2 .15 .18 .20 .20
Fchange 20.36*** 10.16*** .91
∆R2 .03 .02 .00
Outcome variable: Self-Esteem at Wave II
Self-esteem at Wave I .39***(.04) .38 .39***(.04) .39 .38***(.04) .37 .38***(.04) .37
Gender (1 = female) −.06(.04) −.06 −.06+(.04) −.06 −.08*(.04) −.07 −.08*(.04) −.08
Age .00(.02) .00 −.01(.02) −.01 .00(.02) .00 .00(.02) .00
SES −.05(.04) −.05 −.06(.04) −.05 −.05(.04) −.05 −.06(.04) −.05
Generational status (1 = Foreign-Born) .05(.04) .05 .05(.04) .05 .06(.04) .06 .06(.04) .06
GPA .06*(.02) .09 .06*(.02) .10 .05*(.02) .08 .06*(.02) .09
SD at Wave II −.08***(.02) −.14 −.07***(.02) −.12 −.07***(.02) −.11
PAC −.03(.03) −.03 −.02(.03) −.02
SE .12***(.03) .17 .12*(.03) .16
SD at Wave II× PAC .02(.03) .02
SD at Wave II× SE .07*(.03) .08
Intercept 1.49*** 1.58*** 1.40*** 1.41***
F 23.45*** 22.98*** 20.97*** 17.82***
R2 .17 .19 .22 .23
Fchange 16.87*** 11.40*** 3.07*
∆R2 .02 .03 .01
N
ote: SD = School-based Discrimination; PAC = Preference for American Culture; SE = School Experiences. +p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (two-tailed tests).
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T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
Wave II (β = −.16, p < .001), but not by preference for Ameri-
can culture at Wave II. This result suggests that current positive
school experiences were related to less depression. In Model 4,
the school-based discrimination at Wave II by preference for
American culture interaction effect and the school-based dis-
crimination at Wave II by school experiences interaction effect
were not significant. These findings reveal that levels of pref-
erence for American culture and school experiences did not
moderate short-term association between discrimination and de-
pression.
Association between Current School-Based Discriminatory
Experiences at Wave II and Self-Esteem at Wave II. Results are
shown in Table 3. The results of Model 1 were the same as
those shown in Model 1 in the analyses testing the association
between past school-based discrimination and self-esteem at
Wave II. In Model 2, school-based discrimination at Wave II (β
= −.14, p< .001) negatively and significantly predicted levels of
self-esteem at Wave II. This finding was consistent with our
hypothesis that the short-term school-based discrimination sig-
nificantly predicted lower levels of self-esteem.
Model 3 shows that levels of self-esteem at Wave II were
positively and significantly predicted by school experiences at
Wave II (β = .17, p < .001), but not by preference for American
culture at Wave II. This result suggests that current positive
school experiences were related to increased self-esteem. In
Model 4, the school-based discrimination at Wave II by prefer-
ence for American culture interaction effect was not significant
and the school-based discrimination at Wave II by school ex-
periences interaction effect was significant (β = .08, p = .013).
ΔR2 and Fchange were significant between Model 3 and Model 4
(ΔR2 = .01; Fchange (2, 677) = 3.07, p = .042). This finding indi-
cates that the moderating effect of school experiences account-
ed for an additional 1.0% of the variance of self-esteem at Wave
II (i.e., the change between Model 3 and Model 4). A further
post-hoc analysis revealed that self-esteem at Wave II was ne-
gatively related with school-based discrimination at Wave II for
children with negative school experiences (1 SD below the mean;
b = −.19, p < .001), but not for those with positive school expe-
riences (1 SD above the mean; b = −.03, p = .492) (Figure 1).
For Filipino American adolescents, positive school experiences
buffered the short-term negative association between discrimi-
nation and self-esteem.
Discussion
Supportive of the initial hypotheses, this study found nega-
tive associations between school-based ethnic discrimination
and the mental health of Filipino American adolescents in the
short-term. This finding corresponds to the positive correlation
between current school-based discrimination and levels of de-
pression for Filipino American adolescents found by Ying and
Han (2006), albeit that their target was middle adolescents. This
is also consistent with scholars’ caution that Filipino Ameri-
cans’ special US colonized circumstances can mask Filipino
American adolescents’ adjustment challenges of racism and
discrimination (Rumbaut, 1996).
The evidence of the short-term link not withstanding, the fin-
dings do not suggest the long-term toll from discriminatory ex-
periences upon the mental health of Filipino American adoles-
cents. Findings on other ethnic minority adolescents show si-
milar results. For instance, in a study on Chinese Americans
(Benner & Kim, 2009), past experiences of long-term discrimi-
1.25
1.3
1.35
1.4
1.45
1.5
1.55
1.6
1.65
1.7
-0.17 0.71.57
S elf-esteem (Wave II)
S chool-based Discrimination (Wave II)
Negative
School
Expe r ie nc es
Positive
School
Expe r ie nc es
Figure 1.
Interaction effect between school-based discrimination at wave ii and
school experiences at Wave II and self-esteem at Wave II as the out-
come variable; Note. B = unstandardized regression coefficient; −.17 =
mean-1SD; .70 = mean; 1.57 = mean + 1SD. ***p < .001.
nation (reported in middle adolescence) predicted poor school
engagement and academic performance but did not lead to in-
creased levels of depression (reported in late adolescence).
Another study on male American Indian adolescents suggests
that past experiences of discrimination predicted decreased self-
esteem (reported two years later) only in a marginal signifi-
cance level, but are strongly linked with their substance use
(Galliher et al., 2010). Taken together, the findings of this study
and other literature suggest that the longitudinal harm of ethnic
discrimination is less significant to psychological adjustment,
but might exact more severe consequences on externalized out-
comes (e.g., school performance and engagement or substance
use). However, caution is in order when drawing implications
of these findings. Although this study showed that past experi-
ences of discrimination do not appear to associate with detri-
mental effects on long-term mental health of late adolescents,
these experiences might emerge as a threatening factor for Fili-
pino Americans’ mental health in adulthood. Further research
should focus on longitudinal studies tracing associations be-
tween past discriminatory experiences and mental health as indi-
viduals become younger or older adults.
This study extended the study of Ying and Han (2006) by
examining moderating effects of both preference for American
culture and school experiences for associations of school-based
discrimination with depression and self-esteem for Filipino
American adolescents. Our study shows preference for Ameri-
can culture did not moderate the associations between current
experiences of school-based discrimination with depression and
self-esteem. This finding suggests that school-based discrimi-
nation may bring similar levels of negative effects on mental
health among Filipino American adolescents with both high
and low preference for American culture. This might be ex-
plained by their colonial history. Although Filipinos are geo-
graphically defined as Asians, they have a unique culture, i.e.,
being more heavily impacted by Spanish and American coloni-
zation than the cultures of other Asian groups (David & Oka-
zaki, 2006). Due to direct American colonization, first and sec-
ond generation Filipino Americans bears a colonial mentality
whereby their native culture can be denigrated and American
culture accorded a superior status (David & Okazaki, 2006).
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T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
The colonial mentality is prevalent among Filipino Americans
and internalized into their cognition (David & Okazaki, 2006).
For example, Filipino Americans commonly hold self-image of
“being Americanized”. Accordingly, we surmised that Filipino
American adolescents might subconsciously or consciously view
themselves as being Americanized as important, regardless of
their tendencies of acculturation, such as preference for Ameri-
can culture. The cognition of being Americanized conveys a
very discordant message against their discriminatory encounters,
such as feeling alienated from American peers. The cognitive
dissonance theory posits that two discordant cognitions can ex-
pose individuals to psychological maladjustment (Festinger, 1957).
Based on this theory, the degrees of negative associations be-
tween discriminatory experiences and mental health are plausi-
bly similar for Filipino American adolescents, regardless of whe-
ther they hold high or low preference for American culture.
Contrary to the research findings of the moderating effect of
acculturation on Latino and Chinese Americans (Benner & Kim,
2009; Umanã-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007), our study suggests
that acculturation exacerbates the negative association between
discrimination and mental health. Moreover, our finding was
contradictory to the assumption drawn from social identity the-
ory (Turner et al., 1979) and findings on Somali male adoles-
cent refugees (Ellis et al., 2010) and American Indian female
adolescents (Galliher et al., 2010), which suggest that accultura-
tion buffers the negative association between discrimination
and mental health. We argue that these mixed findings on the
moderating role of acculturation (including indicators such as
preference for American culture, language usage, and participa-
tion of activities) might stem from three different values about
acculturation across different ethnic groups. First, some groups
may view high acculturation as an access to gain social sup-
ports of the host culture against discriminatory experiences. Se-
cond, some groups may view acculturation as a proof of being
assimilated into the host culture; thus, discrimination and accul-
turation should be treated as two incompatible cognitions. Third,
the colonial mentality such as high self-image of being Ameri-
canized is strongly rooted in Filipino Americans’ cognition where-
by acculturation plays a less important role in moderating the
effect of discrimination. Alternatively, the mixed findings may
be due to inconsistent measures of acculturation: Umanã-Taylor
and Updegraff (2007) and Ellis et al. (2010) assessed behavi-
oral domain, Galliher et al. (2010) and our study assessed cul-
tural preference, and Benner and Kim (2009) assessed both do-
mains and values. Using a consistent measure of acculturation
should be conducted in the future.
This study extended previous studies on the protective and
buffering role played by positive school experiences for the
association between ethnic discrimination and self-esteem. Po-
sitive school experiences, i.e., a safe and positive learning en-
vironment, were found to alleviate the negative association be-
tween school-based discrimination and self-esteem in the short-
term. Research on Asian American adolescents or college stu-
dents has shown that a positive school environment, including
school safety and positive peer/teacher relations, mitigates per-
ceptions of discrimination (Lee, 2003), and protects adolescents
from negative associations between discrimination and mental
health the negative effects of discrimination on mental health,
e.g., depression (in Taiwanese immigrants, Tsai, 2006; in Afri-
can Americans, Brody et al., 2006). In line with these findings,
our study suggests that school safety and a positive learning
environment might mitigate the short-term negative association
of school-based discriminatory encounters for Filipino Ame-
rican adolescents’ mental health. Taken together, the findings
from our study and other literature suggest that the overall qua-
lity of safe and positive school environment may influence eth-
nic minority children’s perception of negative encounters that
occurred in school and thus protect the ethnic minority chil-
dren’s mental health.
One unexpected finding is that adolescents’ SES was nega-
tively associated with depression given that other covariates
were controlled. This finding is inconsistent with the long es-
tablished association between low SES and increased risk of
depression (e.g., a meta-analysis by Lorant and colleagues,
2003). However, this can be explained by the diminishing re-
turns hypothesis (Farmer & Ferraro, 2005). This hypothesis po-
sits that compared to Whites, ethnic minorities gain less econo-
mic or social-status returns accompanied by high SES. These
diminishing returns increase high SES ethnic minorities’ aware-
ness of the social and economic inequalities and in turn are de-
trimental to their mental health. Thus, among ethnic minorities,
high SES compared to low SES individuals tend to experience
increased risk of depression. Our finding supports this hypothe-
sis.
Limitations and Implications
Despite providing new insights on the mental health of Fili-
pino American adolescents, this study has some limitations.
First, the present study’s failure to detect significant long-term
associations between ethnic discrimination and mental health
might be linked to the nature of the CILS data, i.e., a lapse of
three years between Waves I and II, diminishing the strength of
the association. Future studies with shortened time points (e.g.,
one or two years) and assessing more time points would more
clearly describe the longitudinal effects of discrimination.
Second, measurement limitation rests on the construct of
adolescents’ acculturation orientation. In the CILS data, adole-
scents’ acculturation orientation was only assessed by one item
measuring preference for American culture. Previous research
has revealed that the nature of acculturation is multi-dimensio-
nal and multi-faceted (Berry, 2003). The use of only one item
cannot reflect the overall picture of acculturation of Filipino
American adolescents. This limitation might also explain the
failure to capture the moderating effect of acculturation. Future
studies should assess Filipino adolescents’ acculturation with
scales based on a multi-dimensional framework.
Third, we surmised that the failure to detect the moderating
effect of preference for American culture is explained by the
prevalence of a colonial mentality in the Filipino population,
regardless of their levels of acculturation. However, this study
could not examine the relation between colonial mentality and
acculturation given that the CILS data did not provide any
items or scales assessing colonial mentality. In fact, only one
study to date attempted to quantify and measure the colonial
mentality of Filipino American adolescents (Bergano & Ber-
gano-Kinney, 1997). Yet, their measure has been questioned
with low face validity due to the limited numbers of items (Da-
vid & Okazaki, 2006). Future research to develop more valid
measures of colonial mentality will clarify its relationship to ac-
culturation. Doing so would better describe the link between
colonial mentality and the overall psychological adjustment of
the Filipino American adolescents.
Fourth, one statistical issue rests on the extent of statistical
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T.-F. CHANG ET AL.
power for detecting interaction effects. One interaction effect
was found, i.e., school-based discrimination at Wave II by school
experiences at Wave II, but this study had a low power to detect
this interaction (∆R2 was .01). As Cohen et al. (2003) noted,
interactions are not easy to be observed in social science re-
search and often explain a small portion of variance over and
above first-order effects (i.e., ΔR2 from .01 to .05). Although
∆R2 of this study fell into this range, the interpretation of this
significant interaction effect should be interpreted with caution
due to the low power.
These limitations notwithstanding, the present study provides
useful information on how adults in school settings such as
educators and clinicians can assist Filipino American adoles-
cents to overcome the harm of discriminatory experiences. Our
research suggests that both highly and lowly acculturated ado-
lescents might be susceptible to negative effects of current
school-based ethnic discrimination in the short-term. Educa-
tors’ and clinicians’ support of school and psychological adjust-
ment with all Filipino American adolescents, regardless of their
levels of acculturation, becomes critical.
Another implication is that school administrators and teach-
ers play important roles to provide positive school experiences,
i.e., a safe and good learning environment for students. Evi-
dence from our study that strong levels of school safety and
good learning environment appear to be protective factors against
school-based ethnic discrimination suggests that school admin-
istrators and teachers have significant roles to support Filipino
American adolescents. For example, they can consistently mo-
nitor their school for unsafe situations among students (e.g.,
conflicts between racial/ethnic groups and gang activities) as
well as foster a positive learning environment. Facilitating a
safe school environment and robust learning experiences can
help decrease potential harm of school-based discrimination and
further enhance Filipino American adolescents’ mental health.
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