Analyzing the Creative Problem-Solving Process: Inventing a Product from a Given Recyclable Item

doi:10.4236/ce.2013.49085

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Creative Education

2013. Vol.4, No.9, 592-604

Published Online September 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce) http://dx.doi.org10.4236/ce.2013.49085

592

Analyzing the Creative Problem-Solving Process: Inventing a

Product from a Given Recyclable Item

Caralee K. Doak, Stacey M. Jambura, Jason A. Knittel, Audrey C. Rule

Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, USA

Email: audrey.rule@uni.edu

Received July 18th, 2013; revised August 18th, 2013; accepted August 25th, 2013

Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

Detailed documentations of creative invention are scarce in the professional literature, but could be useful

to those engaging in or studying the problem solving process. This investigation describes the creative

process of graduate students (7 female, 4 male) in a problem-solving theory and practice course grappling

with the task of creating products from four identical recyclable items that were circular, star-impressed

bottoms of plastic juice bottles. Several popular models of the problem-solving process are compared to

the participants’ steps in this invention problem. Participants first provided emotional reactions to the

given ill-defined problem of making a product from the specified items. They used several techniques to

generate ideas and to restrict or define the problem, choosing an optimal product that fits their require-

ments. An analysis of participants’ reflections concerning their creative process showed that although par-

ticipants first found the problem challenging and could not conceptualize effective products, the idea-

generating activities assisted them in making a wide variety of useful products. Participants’ knowledge

and skill areas were highlighted by their choices of products. After completing and presenting a first

product, participants engaged in additional activities to generate ideas for a second product. The second

product was either an improvement of the first product, a new but related product, or a product inspired

by the work of others in the class. Products of this loosely defined problem included: maracas, dish, spin

top, candy suckers, closet organizers, party decorations, yoyo, ladybug, wall décor, flowers, catch game,

party hat, candle holders, moth life cycle, catapult game, toy clock, goblets, castanets, accessory organizer,

and spice shaker.

Keywords: Problem Solving; Creativity; Invention; Creative Process; Product Evaluation

Introduction

This study documents the creative process of graduate stu-

dents in a problem-solving theory and practice course who were

presented with the ill-defined problem of creating a product

from given items: the circular, clear, star-impressed bottom

pieces of plastic juice bottles (often referred to here as “juice

bottle bottoms”). The goal of this article was to document and

analyze the creative process, while connecting it to existing

models, for the purpose of providing an in-depth example of

participants’ progression as they solve an ill-defined problem.

This investigation will be of use to others teaching about, im-

plementing, or studying the creative process. A multitude of

studies have been conducted to unravel the creative process and

various factors affecting it; however, few follow the process

in-depth from start to finish and provide the reader with details

of participant creative ideas, products, and reflections. Addi-

tionally, many models of the creative process have been put

forward, resulting in confusion to novices in the field. Although

this article does not have the scope to examine connections of

the participants’ processes to every creative model presented in

the professional literature, several familiar models, discussed in

the next section, will be addressed.

The Creative Problem Solving Process

Wallas’s Four Stages

Graham Wallas, in The Art of Thought (1926), stated the

creative process should include four major steps: preparation,

incubation, illumination, and verification. The preparation stage

is focused on learning the craft and understanding the task at

hand. During this stage, the problem and its requirements are

defined and information relevant to the problem is gathered.

The next stage, incubation, requires the conscious mind to stop

its focus on the problem, allowing the subconscious to take

over. This generally occurs when a person is occupied with

non-demanding tasks such as sleeping, walking, driving on an

interstate highway, or watching television. Illumination occurs

as a person suddenly becomes aware of one or more solutions

to the problem. The verification stage involves a check of the

viability of the solution, sometimes resulting in a revision lead-

ing to a more successful solution.

Creative Problem Solving Model

Alex Osborn’s (1963) Creative Problem Solving model also

used stages to outline the process. This popular model was

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

modified over time by Sidney Parnes (1981) and Donald Tref-

finger with Scott Isaksen (2005), acquiring additional steps. Six

steps compose the current model: 1) constructing opportunities

or mess-finding—locating a problem for application of the

problem solving process; 2) exploring data or fact-finding—

collecting, assessing, and reviewing all the available data per-

taining to the problem; 3) framing problems or problem-finding

—listing all possible ways of defining the problem; 4) generat-

ing ideas or idea-finding—generating ideas for solving the

problem, including those that are wild or unusual; 5) develop-

ing solutions or solution-finding—choose and apply criteria for

evaluating ideas to find the best solution; and 6) building ac-

ceptance or acceptance-finding—plan implementation by iden-

tifying responsible persons, a timeline of actions, and available

resources.

The I’s of Inspiration

Jane Piirto (2004) identified seven “I’s” of the creative proc-

ess: Inspiration, Imagery, Imagination, Improvisation, Intuition,

Incubation, and Insight to which “Implementation” was later

added (Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011). Piirto identified several

areas of Inspiration that prompt attention to a problem: inspira-

tion of love or visitation of the muse in which one is inspired by

a loved one; inspiration of nature in which one sees the com-

monplace as new or beautiful; and inspiration of the intellectual

in which one delights in the creative accomplishments of others.

Another method of generating creative ideas uses Imagery or

pictures seen in the mind’s eye, along with Imagination. Im-

provisation or free-play with ideas, including humor, helps

boost creativity. Piirto recognized Intuition or subconscious

“knowing” of factors related to a solution that arrive through

psychic intuition or dreams. Incubation, similar to Wallas’s

stage, occurred during meditation or a release from conscious

thinking. Piirto’s insight is similar to Wallas’s illumination

stage as the moment when a person first experiences “Aha!”

The last “I” of “Implementation” was similar to the Creative

Problem Solving model’s last stage of “acceptance-finding”.

Basadur’s Four Stage, Eight Step Process

Basadur and colleagues (Basadur & Basadur, 2011; Basadur,

Graen, & Green, 1982) developed an organized and more com-

prehensive model of the creative problem-solving process from

a business viewpoint: Stage 1 Generation (steps of Problem

Finding and Fact Finding); Stage 2 Conceptualization (steps of

Problem Definition and Idea Finding); Stage 3 Optimization

(steps of Evaluate /Select and Plan); Stage 4 Implementation

(steps of Acceptance and Action). The first three stages of

Wallas’s model fit into the first half of Basadur’s model.

Problem finding may be the most crucial stage of the entire

process (Bassadur & Bassadur, 2011; Kabanoff & Rossiter,

1994) because the actual problem may be ambiguous or inter-

preted in many different ways (Getzels, 1982). Finding the

problem in science may be the most creative step of problem

solving because once the problem has been formulated, its so-

lution may just be a routine process of carrying out experiments

or calculations (Einstein & Infeld, 1938). Asking new questions

or regarding issues from new angles may lead to innovations.

Similarly, in art, the initiation of a work may not begin with a

problem in mind, but merely, an exploration of new media or

subject matter from which the problem emerges (Getzels, 1979;

Moore, 1955). Problem definition follows the generation stage

in which problem finding and fact finding occur. Ill-defined

problems require the additional creative work of placing re-

strictions to better define the problem. An ill-defined problem is

one in which the methods and solutions are not provided, al-

lowing problem finding to emerge (Lee & Cho, 2007). The

problem in the current investigation was ill-defined so that

participants could engage in the creative act of defining a prob-

lem.

Method

Participants

Eleven adults (7 female, 4 male; 1 African American, 2 Mid-

dle Eastern, 1 European, and 7 Euro-American), who were

involved in a graduate course in problem-solving, participated

in this study. The activities occurred over a five-week period

(during a semester-long course) as participants created and re-

created inventions from given recycled items. This research

project was approved by the Human Subjects Committee of the

overseeing university; all participants gave written consent for

their data and photographs of their work to be included in the

study.

Organization of the Problem-Solving Activities

Table 1 shows general connections between several models

of the creative problem solving process and the activities of the

current investigation.

1) The course. The problem solving course in which the

study took place addressed both theory and practice of problem

solving. The course was an elective course for masters-level

educators interested in gifted education and for doctoral-level

candidates who were planning to be college instructors or

school leaders. The topic of problem finding had been dis-

cussed in depth in class, along with several different theoretical

and practical approaches to problem solving.

2) Initial reactions. At the start of this project, four plastic

juice bottle bottoms were provided to each participant. Partici-

pants were asked to begin thinking about an invention or prod-

uct they could make using one or more juice bottle bottoms.

Participants were asked to record their initial reactions to the

task. The ensuing discussion led to challenges, ideas, and con-

cerns to guide future process steps.

3) Idea finding and problem definition. Before actually

creating a product, participants were asked to complete a set of

three idea finding or problem definition activities. Participants

later reflected on the results. Participants were given a drawing

of the floor plan of a house and asked to think of products used

within each room that could be made with the given circular

plastic pieces: kitchen, bathroom, dining room, bedroom, living

room, and balcony, garage, car or workplace, and garden. Other

areas for which to generate possibilities included an indoor

kids’ playroom, clothes closet, jewelry chest, and other places

of personal choice.

In the second part, participants better def ined the p roblem by

generating ways to structure the problem beyond “make a

product using one or more juice bottle bottom pieces.” Partici-

pants were required to define ten different ways to further re-

strict the problem.

The third part of the activity asked participants to consider

different ways of arranging or altering the plastic juice bottle

bottom disks to generate additional product ideas. The given

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

594

Table 1.

Comparison of models of the creative process of problem solving.

Wallas’s

Four Stages

(1926)

Creative Problem

Solving Model of

Osborn (19 63),

Parnes (1981), and

Treffinge r & Isaksen

(2005)

I’s of Inspiration

Piirto (2004) and

Davis, Rimm, &

Siegle (2011)

Four Stage, Eight Ste p

Process

Basadur & Basadur

(2011), Basadur,

Graen, & Green (1982)

Three-Pillared

Bridge of

Adair (2010) Current Study Activities

Part 1: Understanding

the Challenge Stage 1: Gene r ation Enrollmen t i n a class on problem solving

Constructing

Opportunities

(Mess-Finding) Problem-Finding Being presented with the ill- defined problem

of making a product of the plastic pi eces

Exploring Data

(Fact-Finding)

Inspiration

Fact-finding Thinking a bo ut the problem and generating

initial idea s

Imagining p r oducts for rooms in a house

Preparation

Framing Pr o bl ems

(Problem-Finding) Imagery

Imagination

Stage 2:

Conceptualization

Problem Definition

Pillar 1:

Defining the

Problem

Adding constraints to define the problem

Incubation Generating i deas by manipulating the pieces

Incubation Intuition

Improvisation Allowing one’s subconscious to work on the

problem

Illumination

Part 2 Gene r ating

Ideas Gen erating

ideas (Idea-Finding)

Illumination

Idea-Finding

Pillar 2:

Generating

Feasible

Options Feeling that one has some good ideas

Stage 3: Optimization Identifying more and less creative ideas

Evaluate

Part 3 Preparing for

Action Developing

Solutions

(Solution-Finding) Select and Plan Choosing an idea for the product

Stage 4:

Implementation Making the first product

Acceptance Viewing pr o ducts of others to gain id eas

Additional creative idea generation activities

Verification

Building Acceptance

(Acceptance- Fi nd ing)

Implementation

Action

Pillar 3:

Choosing the

Optimum

Course/

Solution

Making the second prod uct

ways to manipulate the items were: 1) drill holes, cut slots, and

use hot glue, epoxy, and string to attach; 2) use paint, markers,

foil, glitter or sequins; 3) arrange in a circle, band, sheet, row,

pile, sphere, flat, stack, doubled as a lentil, or single; 4) arrange

as a dangling disk, as a container, as support, as a pedestal, as a

lid, as a wall, or as a scoop.

Using the results from the idea finding activity, participants

reflected upon their discoveries. The survey reflection included

several items. Participants were asked to circle a number on a

scale from 1 to 10 with “1” representing the “not creative” end

of the continuum and “10” the “extremely creative” endpoint to

indicate the level of creativity for their generated set of ideas

from the three exercises. On a similar scale, participants were

next asked to circle a number to indicate overall, daily creative

ability with 5 or 6 being average. Participants were asked to

identify the activity that helped them the most to generate crea-

tive ideas and to tell why. They were also required to identify

their most creative ideas and least creative ideas, explaining

their reasoning for both. Finally, participants described emo-

tional thoughts they had during the process of generating ideas.

4) First products and reflections. Participants were given

one week to design and produce their most creative idea. Each

product was placed on display and photographed while partici-

pants described their process details to the class. Following the

group share, participants completed a reflection survey in

which they rated the creativity of their product and their overall,

daily creativity. They also explained how they obtained their

creative ideas and determined the most creative aspect of their

product. They told why they chose to make this product rather

than other alternative ideas, discussed skills that influenced the

way they made their products, and told insights, inspirations, or

ideas do they had after seeing the creative products that other

people in the class made .

After sharing and reflecting, the participants were introduced

to Eberle’s (2008) SCAMPER process using Michalko’s

Thinkpak (2006). SCAMPER is an acronym listing actions to

guide this process: substitute, combine, adapt, magnify, minify,

modify, put to another use, eliminate, reverse and rearrange.

Each person drew a Thinkpak card and explained how the

SCAMPER operation described on the card could be applied to

their product. The activity was repeated, leading to an open

discussion about improving the first product or inventing a new,

yet related, product.

5) Second products and ref lections. Part ici pants we re give n

two weeks to complete an improved or new product. During

class, participants showed their second products, pointed out

improved or innovative features, discussed the inspiration for

the product, and explained the relationship of the second prod-

uct to the first product. The creative process was finalized with

another survey in which participants were asked to rate the

creativity of their second product; to rate their overall, daily

creative ability; to clarify the connection between the first and

second product; to explain the inspiration for the second prod-

uct, along with skills that influenced the way participants made

their products; to identify the most creative aspects of the sec-

ond product; and, finally, to tell insights, inspirations, or ideas

they obtained from seeing the creative second products of

classmates.

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

Data Analysis

The quantitative analysis involved calculation of means with

standard deviations; employed t-tests to determine significant

differences.

The qualitative analysis utilized the constant comparison

method to group ideas with similar ideas into categories. These

categories underwent continuous refinement as additional par-

ticipant responses were analyzed and often category labels

shifted and defined new relationships (Dye, Schatz, Rosenberg,

& Coleman, 2000; Goetz & LeCompte, 1981).

Results

Initial Reactions to the Problem

The juice bottle and two cut-out bottom pieces are shown in

Figure 1. Table 2 shows people’s initial reactions to being

asked to create a product from the recycled circular plastic bot-

tom pieces cut from a juice bottle. Many people immediately

sought to define the problem better by asking about other mate-

rials, expressing a desire for a useful product, and seeking

guidelines to better define the problem. Everyone tried to define

the problem more clearly. Some people expressed insecurities

about their creativity and had a desire to make the product

visually appealing while acknowledging their interest in the

challenge.

Generating Ideas for the Product

Imagining products for rooms in a house. Table 3 shows

the ideas participants generated as they visualized how a juice

bottle bottom might be made into a product for each room of a

house. Each room resulted in numerous ideas with little repeti-

tion. Participants exhibited little functional fixedness (Duncker,

1945) by using these items as shallow dishes or containers

similar to their original use as the bottom of a juice container.

Instead, a large variety of configurations and uses were gener-

ated.

Defining the problem more narrowly. Table 4 provides

categories of participant responses to restricting or defining the

problem. The problem initially presented to the participants was

not well-defined. A well-defined problem gives little room for

problem finding because the problem is a standard one with a

known method of solving that will result in a correct answer

(Dillon, 1982; Getzels, 1987; Lee & Cho, 2007). The problem

in the current study was ill-structured because minimal infor-

mation and restrictions were given (i.e., “Make an invention

using one or more juice bottle bottoms”); participants needed to

define their own sub-problems to produce creative products

(Lee & Cho, 2007; Reiter-Palmon, Mumford, Boes, & Runco,

1997).

The data in Table 4 demonstrate the strong desire of many

participants to make a useful product rather than a merely

decorative one. Many of the restrictions were goals for the use

of the product rather than restrictions for how it would be cre-

ated or other non-goal constraints.

Ideas generated by manipulating the plastic pieces. Table

5 shows the ideas generated from considering different ways

the recycled plastic disks might be manipulated (e.g., attached

with hot glue, arranged in a circle, dangling) or treated (e.g.,

drilled). The first category of Table 5 presents ideas generated

by considering how holes might be used in the creation of an

Figure 1.

A plastic juice bottl e and two cir-

cular bottom pieces.

Table 2.

Initial concerns and reactions when project was introduced.

FrequencyIssue Example Statements

9 Other

materials

How will I include a maximum number of

juice bottle bottoms with a minimum of

other mate rials? What other materia ls can

I use?

9 Technical

and tool

issues

Cutting them will be hard as the plastic is

rather thick. If making a mold, need to

make a hole for filling that won’t ruin the

shape.

7 Useful

How will I nail down a useful product?

I’d like to make a product that would

actually be used.

5 Concern

about

creativity

How in the world can I turn this into

something else? Do I need to be crafty?

5 Guidelines

What are the guideline s f o r a produc t?

What concept am I applying?

5 Originality

Does it have to be something new? I want

my product t o be one of a kin d.

4 Adhesives

and

attachment

How will I get these materials to hold

together? What is the best a dhesive for

this?

4 Visually

Appealing

I want to make sure my work is beautiful

to look at. People like color, so the

product should be colorful.

3 Early ideas

Looks like a shield. Remi nds me of

headlights.

Obtaining

enough juice

bottle

bottoms for

the product

Might have t o spend money to buy more

juice bottles to get enough bottoms for my

product.

2 Interesting

problem This will be challenging but interesting.

2 Safety Safety of my product is importa nt .

1 Diversity

Can we combine const r uction and w r iting

and tie it al l to a diversit y issue?

1 EnvironmentAm I polluting t he environm ent by

making something or should I just

recycle?

1 InexpensiveI want my produ ct to be ine xpensive.

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

596

Table 3.

Ideas generated by thinking of how the juice bottle bottoms might be made into a product used in each part of a house.

Room Items to Be Made of Juice Bottle Bott om or Bottoms

Kitchen Candy dish; chopped ve getable cont ainer; decoration on c urtain; detergent measuring cup ; j ewelry hol d er on windowsill; mold for

chocolate, Jell-O, or ice; Popsicle m elting protection; pot scrubber rest; saucer; sink stopper; slotted spoon, spoon rest, stove utensil rest;

tea bag holder; window prism

Bathroom Back scrubber; bath t oy ; curtain ring; curtain weight; curtain (link together to form continuous surface); decoration on tub; drawer

organizer; jewelry holder; liq uid make-up holder; single-dose medicine container ; s oap dish; toothbrush holder; tub drain s t opper;

window curtain.

Dining Room Appetizer plate; base for bowls, glasses created from recycled plastic b ottles; bread plate; chair back d ecoration; chandelier; coasters;

individual condiment holder; ind ividual hors d’oeuvres plates; lamp shade; lemon slice holder; n ameplate; nametag; napkin holder;

painted and mounted in front of light for ambiance; pot holder; servi ng dish; underneath table leg; vase bottom.

Bedroom Ba by mobile for cri b; bed frame po st; candle holder; coin tray; door stop; earring holder; hanging wind c himes; jewelry holder; jewelry

such as pin, medallion, bangle; lamp cover; mobile; outlet cover; base of potpourri holder ; reminder u nder pillow; sleep mask (paint two

black); wall decoration; wall hanger.

Living Room Artwork or wall hanging; bookends; candle holder; candy dish; checkers game pieces; coasters; decoration on lamp; decoration on TV;

furniture coaster or slide under leg; light pull; outle t cover; prop for remote control; retro room divide r; small cove r for plate; spinner for

game.

Balcony Alarm system cover; ashtray; bird feeder; bird nest support; c oaster for drinks; cover for bottles or drinks to keep out bugs; hanging

mechanism for mobile; nut dish; outdoor lighting; plant stand; rain catcher; Tiki torch; wind bell or wind chime .

Kids’ Play Area Bean bag targets; dog dish; doll’s bath tub; draw faces on them and use as game; flying saucer toy; Frisbee; game pieces; kids’ craft

stamper; manipulatives for counting; music al instrum ent; paint pallet; rattle; scoop for sandbox; spinning top; tires for toy cars; window

in doll house.

Garage Bike hanger; container fo r loose nuts , bolts, screws; curtain for window giving frosted effect; decoration on ceiling or wall; hanger to

indicate when to stop car w hen pulling into garage; headlight cover/ re placement; mini shelves for small items; number hanger; oil drip

catcher; paint container for touch-ups; reminder on c ar door; spoon or scoop; temporary paint can cover.

Car or

Workplace

Car traction under tire; cell phone holde r; coin bank or ho lder; containe r for paper c lips; cover on cu ps in car; hanging air freshener;

hanging rear-view mirror decoration; mix paints for touch-up and lay wet brush on tray; portable pl ate; rem i n der on windshield; scraper

for ice on windows; tea bag rest.

Garden

Bird feeder; border around plantin gs; create a network of juice bottle bottoms for a vente d gr eenhouse effect; cut it and attach to stick as

rake; decoration or sig n o n tree or fence; digger; drill holes fo r drip irrigation; edger; golf hole cover; holder for seeds to be planted;

landmark for plantings; pet pooper scooper; pet t oy; protect seedlings with small hand ti l ler; row marker ; shovel; sun catcher; turn into

plastic flower decoration; use with twinkle lights for decorat ion.

Clothes Closet

or Jewelry

Chest

Attach adhesiv e for lint rem over; clothes tag; clothing divider; cut outside in shape of plus sign and screw to wa ll as clothes hanger;

divider in closet; hanger for jewelry; jewelry st and made from several combined; label for dirty clot h es; make into decorative vest;

make on a base and cut another into X shape and store rings on it; ne ck lace hanger/ organizer; paint to match clothing; ring holder;

sachet; sca rf hanger; separator for neckties or scarves; show stretcher or support.

item. The addition of color and glitter or sequins inspired par-

ticipants to envision decorative items as shown in the second

category of Table 5. Arrangement of multiple juice bottle bot-

toms into different configurations prompted a multitude of

invention designs ranging from alphabet letters to an outlet

cover to a Tiki torch. The given ways of manipulating the recy-

cled bottle parts in the last category in Table 5 resulted in

many items used as containers and supports.

This strategy of thinking about different ways of manipulat-

ing the juice bottle bottoms allowed participants to generate

over 150 different ideas. Participants considered this technique

helpful as many were wondering what they might be able to do

with these recycled items besides the obvious ideas of using

them as wheels on a toy or a type of dish. The way of manipu-

lation can be easily correlated with the generated ideas as they

were often directly connected to the wording of the suggested

manipulation.

Favored strategies for idea-generation. Table 6 gives par-

ticipants’ reflections regarding why they favored one idea-

generation strategy over others when generating creative ideas.

The largest number of participants favored the strategy of

imagining the juice bottle bottom as an item in different rooms,

stating their main reason as the visual support afforded by the

house floor plan diagram. Michalko (2001), in his book of

strategies for generating creative ideas, noted that the explosion

of creativity during the Renaissance was strongly connected to

the use of graphics (e.g., drawings, diagrams, sketches) in re-

cording and presenting knowledge. His strategy of making

thoughts visible was favored by participants who mentioned

that the visual floor plan allowed them to better produce effec-

tive ideas.

Emotional reactions to the project. Table 7 demonstrates

the participants’ reflections focused on emotions. Participants

were asked to describe the emotional reactions they experi-

enced during the process of using the recently discussed strate-

gies (considering items for different rooms of a house; ma-

nipulating the juice bottle bottoms in different ways; imposing

a variety of restrictions to better define the problem). There

were 10 strongly positive reactions and 14 negative ones. The

last item in the positive column of Table 7 contains both nega-

tive and positive aspects although the final reaction was more

positive (relief). Many of the negative reactions reflected a lack

of self-confidence rather than dislike of the task. The relatively

low number of emotional reactions that involved enjoyment

and play may be reflective of the participant pool of graduate

students who often feel pressured to perform well on everything.

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

Table 4.

Possible restrictions and ways of defining the product to be made of recycled juice bottle bottoms.

Frequency Category Example Problem Definition Statements

25 Purposeful and Useful Product Product needs to be used at home. Use th e product f or seaside pu rposes. The product needs to be more

useful than decorative.

15 Configuration or Method of

Construction Must use hot glu e, string o r o ther type s o f f asteners to make the product. One juice bottle bottom pi ece

must remain intact. The product must stay transparent.

7 Educa t i o nal or Effective in

Facilitatin g a Higher Purpo se The final product must be aimed at helping tho s e of lower socio-economic status. This item should be

used by all across race or ethnicity. The product must be designed to better the world.

7 Attractive Product must be pleasing t o the eye. Product must be a ttractive to children.

6 Decorative

The produc t can be encrus t ed with glitter, sequins, buttons, etc. for decoration. The product needs to be

decorated with paints o r markers.

5 Shape The product must stay round. The product should resemble an animal in shape.

5 Safety

The produc t n eeds to ha ve no sharp edges. Th e product must b e large enough not to be swallowe d by

pets.

5 Manufacture and Marketing Needs to take less than 30 minutes to manufacture b y hand. The product should be put together a s a

do-it-yourself kit.

4 Environmentally Friendly

The product must send a positive m essage abo ut recycling. The product should p ro mote environmental

education and e njoyment.

3 Toy The product should be a toy or something to play with.

3 Melting of Plastic The product should not be melted during its manufacture. One can heat and melt the plast i c juice bottl e

bottoms while creating the product.

2 Teamwork

The class sho uld dete r mine the central theme. The produc t has to be made by a team—each person adds

something and then passes it on to the next person.

2 Portable The product must be portable.

2 New and Original The product must be completely new. The product can be a modification of an existing item .

2 Durable The product must be durable .

2 Cost The cost of manufacture should be no more t han $5.00.

1 Time The time for the product’s creation must be limited.

Table 5.

Ideas generated by thinking of how the juice bottle bottoms might be manipulated in different ways.

Way of Manipul ating Items to be made of Juice Bottle Bottom or Bottoms

Drill holes, cut slot,

use hot glue, epoxy,

string, to attach

Add holes for slotted spoon; bird feeder (4); castanets; cat toy (2); catapult; cha ndelier; clothing divider; coat rack; connect six in

cube shape, fill holes with duct tape, a n d create slot fo r b ank; covers; decorative flower; drawer organizer; drill many holes and

attach a stick for a mini sa nd sifter; fancy door knob wit h gems inside; g o-cart wheels; glue together with beads inside for rattle;

hanger saver; hanger; hanging pot holder; j ewelry stand (2); key holder; lamp shade; l emon holde r; make a hole in middle fo r a

nail and hold the plastic—not the nail—when hammerin g i n a nail; make hole in middle for napkin holder (2); multi-layer foun-

tain; paperweight; pepper shaker lid; pieces for a de coration; plastic snowflake decorations ; protect seedlings; servin g b owl, stove

rest; sun catcher; thread roll; tiss u e holder; t o t e bag; wall sticker; wheels for toy; wi n d chime (4)

Use paint, markers,

line with foil, encrust

with glitter, s equins

to color or decorate

Bangle bracelet, belt buckle; brooch (2); Christmas ornament (3); coaster (2); connect three together, attach handle, and decorate

for a fan; decoration; doorknob decorati on; earrings (5); flowe rs; flying saucer toy; Frisbee ; hair accessory ; holiday de cor ation; lid;

line with foil for mini solar cooker; musical instrument; necklace pendant (2); number sign; original artwork; paper holder; parking

tag; pattern for painting or pastry; plan t decoration; reflector a l ong path; reflector to wear when walking; reward for achievement;

sewn into a fabr i c bag and w alk on to massage fee t ; s h ell game; stack together, paint green and glitter f o r Christmas trees; stained

glass; sun catcher (2); tag; tea bag holder; wall decoration (3); wreath

Arrange in a circle,

band, sheet, row, pile,

sphere, flat, stack,

doubled as a lentil, or

single

Alphabet letters; bed frame post; bicycl e decoration on spokes; bird feeder; bobbin for ribbon; bookends; carry out cup lid;

chocolate mold; classroo m spotligh t ; coin holder; counter; curtain; decorative bowl; drum; earring; Frisbe e; frosted window;

furniture slides; goggle eye glasses; headlight co ver; ice mold; kaleidoscope; knee protector; lightweight ball; mancala game

board; mini-plates for dips; necklace (2); noise maker; outlet cover; paint palette; picture frame; plastic vest; playhouse window;

reminder; replace token when playing cards; ring for drawing back curtains; snowflake ornament; soap dish; soap or candle mold;

target; Tiki t orch; toy hat; wall hanging ; wreath (3); yoyo

As a dangling disk, as

container, a s support,

pedestal, as lid, as

wall, as sco op

Attach two on sides of a cap as a translucent sun shield; at t ach to bottom of shoes as ice grippers; bird feeder (2); candle holder

(2); candy dish; chandelie r; child’s mobile; connect four to make walls of a mini-terra rium; cove r for seeds on gro und; cup lid;

decoration on car hub ca p; game—place several on floor and try to toss r ocks into them; glass and bowl support ba se; ice fishin g

slush scoop; individual salsa container; jewelry stand (2); Kool-Aid s t ir spoon; ladle; litter bo x s cooper; measuring cup; medallion;

mobile (2); nail/screw container; paperweight; pe destal for spices; potpourri holder; pr ivacy screen; roulette; room divider;

scarecrow; scoop for Epsom salts for bath; seed starter; signs; soap dish; spoon rest; sugar scoop; sun catc her; support between

book and wall of library; sup port for contact lens case; taps for shoes ; tea bag rest; use to fix hole i n cloths by draw ing through

hole in juice bottle bottom and tying with rib bon; wind c himes (2)

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

598

Table 6.

Reasons for favoring one above the other idea generating activities.

Favored

Activity Frequency

Chosen Reasons for Favoring This Method for

Idea Generation

Generating

products for

different

rooms

By seeing the room, I could focus on that

aspect.

I am a visual learner and could vis ualize

the products in the rooms.

The visual support of the room layouts

was important for me.

Manipulative

activity 4

The choices of how to arrange the jui ce

bottle botto m disks hel ped me generate

product ideas.

This helped me think of a greater variety

of ways to use the disks.

I wasn’t restricted by where the object

could be used.

Page of

constraints 2

This was like verbal brainstormi ng for

me.

I only had to consider one idea and how

to constrain it.

Table 7.

Emotional reactions early in the project.

Positive Emotional Reactions Frequency

Excitement at the creative challenge 4

Playful, childlike, joyful in trying out ideas 3

Completely engrossed in the problem 2

Satisfactio n in gene ra ting go od ide a s 1

Stressed to have to genera te ideas followed by relief when

the task was complete 5

Negative Emotional Reactions Frequency

Frustrated or exasperated when trying to think of ideas 5

Lack of confidence in ability to be creative 4

Confused or perplexed about what to do next 2

Restricted or limited by the juice bottle bottoms 2

Fear of not having enough time to think of the best idea 1

Identifying more- and less-creative ideas. The reasons

given for choosing a product as particularly creative, as shown

in Table 8, are originality, visual appeal, complexity, and func-

tionality. Personal implicit theories allowed participants to

judge the creativity of their products even when these individu-

als did not perhaps have a specific definition of creativity in

mind. Implicit theories are personal opinions of non-experts in

contrast to explicit theories developed by professionals through

research (Runco, Nemiro, & Walberg, 1998). Two of the crite-

ria, originality and functionality, used by participants were

similar to those identified in a study of implicit theories of crea-

tivity of students from the United States, China, and Japan:

novelty and appropriateness (Paletz & Peng, 2008). Elaboration

and originality, along with fluency and flexibility, are Guil-

ford’s four divergent production abilities that are often used as

a foundation for measuring creativity (Guilford, 1967: p. 138).

Participants identified complexity as a criterion for identifying

a creative product; this may be similar to elaboration. Addition-

Table 8.

Reasons for choosing ideas as particularly creative after the early idea-

generating activities.

Reason for

Choosing Idea

as Creative Idea How the Idea Was

Generated

Protect hands when

hammering a nail by

using a hole drilled in

the juice bottle bottom

to hold the nail

Mentally visu alizing

where I can use the item

Clothing divide r in

closet Examining needs in my

own closet

Line with foil for mini

solar cooker

Continually thought of

ways to combine and

manipulate the bottoms

Unusual,

unexpected,

different,

unconventional

idea that I have

not seen before

Small hand t rowel I like to work with

gardening and so thought

of how to use it there

Wall sticker Focusing on rooms

helped me get this idea

Chandelier Thinking of the rooms

and what y ou might find

in them

Visually

appealing

The light art sculpture

with beautiful lighting

effects

I combined some of my

technical th eatre skills as

a designer with the juice

bottle botto ms

Decorative book ends

that are drill ed, glued,

painted, decorated and

made of multiple juice

bottle botto ms

I put mysel f in t h at room

and observe d my

surroundings

Complexity of

manufacture

Making a mold and then

using it to paint the wall

The bottom has a star that

made me think of a

decoration

Highly

functional Holder Some way I would r eally

use it

ally, complexity has been identified as the most important

characteristic of highly creative visual arts products (Brittain &

Beittel, 1960). Finally, visual appeal, identified as a criterion

for a creative product by participants, has also been used as a

criterion in a study of art students’ products (Getzels & Csik-

szentmihalyi, 1976): artists and art critiques rated drawings on

aesthetic value. Additionally, The Torrance Tests of Creative

Thinking streamlined scoring guide (Torrance, Ball, & Safter,

2008) lists the creative strength of “richness of imagery” as a

score-able creative trait. This creative strength involves images

that are lively, intense, vivid, appealing to the viewer, and show

variety.

Participants’ reasons given for classing ideas as not creative,

provided in Table 9, seemed to be the opposite of why ideas

were chosen for being most creative. However, lack of visual

appeal was not a reason that appeared to influence a decision of

lack of creativity in this participant sample.

The First Products

Figures 2 and 3 show the products generated by participants.

Everyone was able to create a viable and satisfactory product

from the juice bottle bottom pieces. Two people created two

products (one person made the dish and spin top; another

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

Table 9.

Reasons ideas were judged as not creative.

Category of

Reason Specific Reason Idea Judged as Not

Very Creative

Doorstop

It was one of my first ideas Drink coaster

Earrings

These ideas seemed obvious Medallion

The idea is not new; there are

ornaments t hat look like these

bottle bottoms that are sold in

stores for Christmas decorations

Holiday orna ment

Saucer

All of the saucer and litt le dish

ideas because they are basically

the same idea Coin tray

Lack of

Originality

Anything c ou ld be used for

decoration Decorative pieces

Soap dish

Tray for nuts and

bolts

Wheels for toy

vehicle

Miniature Frisbee

Lack of

Complexity

You would n’ t h ave to transform

it or do anything to it

You don’t have to change its

look or comp o sition

Coin holder

Knee protector

Lack of

Functionality It would not really fu l f ill the

function well Wind chime

person made the party hat and flowers); one of these was in-

spired by suggestions from a relative (the flowers). The prod-

ucts represented a wide range of usage areas from entertain-

ment (maracas, party decoration, party hat, spin top, catch game,

yoy o) to tab le and food use (candy suckers, dish, candle holders)

to home décor (party decoration, wall decoration, flower ar-

rangement) and household use (closet clothing organiz e rs).

The products were strongly influenced by the skills, interests,

and prior experiences of the makers. For example, a person

with theatre experience made the maracas and performed

briefly with them when showing them to the class. The candle-

sticks were made by a participant who had been involved in

theatrical set design: she explained that she had often been re-

quired to create expensive-looking set items from inexpensive

materials. The person who made the wall décor told how she

had made other decorative elements for her home in these same

colors. The participant who made the ladybug on the yarn

flower had experience in crochet and knitting. The catch game

was influenced by an elementary-age son of a participant who

enjoys active games. Similarly, the creator of the party hat often

makes paper hats for special occasions.

Techniques for manipulating the given material for the

first product. The physical properties of the juice bottle bottom

pieces affected the product choices of participants. Several

people remarked on the light and shadow pattern of the

star-shaped mold impression in the center of the circular plastic

piece, expressing a desire to make use of that in the product.

Makers of the dish, spin top, yoyo, candlestick holders and

catch game enjoyed this effect, highlighting it in their products.

Several other participants used the art technique of reverse

painting to produce a colorful object with a very glossy plastic

Figure 2.

First products (Part 1).

Figure 3.

First products (Part 2).

surface. The room décor and closet clothing bar organizers

employed this technique. The maracas and ladybug combined

sparing use of paint with the transparent light and shadow de-

sign to produce pleasing patterns in their products. Applying

black marker lines and glitter to the back of the plastic piece

was combined with reverse painting to make a shimmering,

glossy product in the psychic eyes of the party hat and the

flowers in a pot. The star-shaped central impression of the

given recycled plastic pieces was put to use as a candy mold for

the colorful, patterned candy suckers. Finally, the cupped, cir-

cular shape of these plastic pieces was covered with wrapping

paper and used as a support for bows and additional decorations

in the party decoration.

Participants used a variety of methods to attach the plastic

pieces to each other or to additional materials. Drilling holes

was the method used by several participants. The closet cloth-

ing rod organizers were produced by drilling a very large cen-

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

600

tral hole so that they could slide onto the closet rod. Screws

inserted into drilled holes held together the fancy dish and spin

top, while a small wooden dowel was placed in a drilled hole

for the yoyo. Wire was used in drilled holes to attach the lady-

bug wings, chenille sticks were used as flower stems for the

flower pot, and thread was sewn through holes in the eyes for

the party hat. The makers of the maracas, wall décor, and can-

dle holders used hot glue or cement to hold their inventions

together. The participant who made the maracas explained that

she used the colorful yarn braid to decorate the maracas while

hiding the hot glue seam. Finally, two types of tape were used

in these first products. The ball toss and catch game’s creator

used duct tape to hold a spoon to each of the catch paddles,

while the party decoration maker used clear plastic tape to at-

tach the party decorations.

Criteria for choosing a product idea. Table 10 shows par-

ticipant reasoning for choosing one idea over others for the first

product. Many reasons focused on practical aspects of creating

the product. This may be a reflection of the limited time gradu-

ate students have for homework. The last two reasons given in

Table 10 correlate with two of the factors for considering a

work to be creative: usefulness and originality.

Creation of the Second Products

Participants had two weeks to create a second product with

one to four juice bottle bottoms. Researchers observed that par-

ticipants approached the second challenge with enthusiasm fueled

by recent success of making a first product. Most welcomed the

opportunity to improve the first product or implement new

ideas to make a new product.

Products made. Figures 4 and 5 present the second prod-

ucts made by participants. Again, participants created a variety

of colorful, useful items. Two materials for teaching elementary

students were produced: an attractive diagram of the life cycle

of the Polythemus Moth, and a two-sided hedgehog having a

clock with movable hands on one side and information about

the diet of the animal on the other. This is a reflection of the

study population as being composed of teachers or former tea-

chers.

Participants’ second products formed four categories: prod-

ucts that were very similar to the first products but improved in

some way (see Figure 6); second products that resulted from

the expansion of first product ideas into additional items (see

Figure 7); products that were different than the first products,

but related by being similar in theme (see Figure 8); and, fi-

nally, products that were inspired by the first product ideas of

other class members (see Figure 9), as discussed in the next

section.

Inspiration from viewing products of other participants.

Table 11 presents participants’ insights, inspirations, and ideas

after seeing the creative products of classmates. Responses

between the making of the first and second products were very

similar: both times participants noted how they might use a

technique in the future; remarked about the desirability of

decoration; suggested they might make use of other people’s

ideas; commented that recycled materials might be put to use

for other products; observed that interest and strengths contrib-

ute to effective products; and mentioned that usefulness was

important. Initial perceptions of the assignment were that the

circular juice bottle bottoms would limit the creative ideas for

products. The third insight category shows that six people noted

Table 10.

Reasons given for why idea for first product was chosen above other

competing ide as.

Frequency Reason Product Was Chosen

3 Clear vision of how to make it

3 Could use available items without spendi ng extra

money

3 Do-able within time constraints

3 Practical product that will actu ally be used

2 Perceived as a unique idea

Table 11.

Insights after makin g t he fi rst and second products .

ProductFrequency Insight Category

9 A technique I might u se in the future.

7 More decoration/elaboration is a plus.

6 Although at first the given items s eemed

limiting, they were not.

4 One’s experiences and skills influenced

product.

4 Many items might be recycled—o ne could

create challenges.

3 Taking another person’s idea and applying

it to your own product.

First

3 Practical/usable items are effec tive.

11 Another pe rson’s ideas of expanding the

product mi ght be applied to m y own or t o a

new product.

7 One could make even more useful things

with recycled items.

6 A technique I might u se in the future.

4 The nature of creativity as being learned

and related to personality and strengths.

1 Practical/usable items are effec tive.

Second

1 More decoration/elaboration is a plus.

Figure 4.

Second products (Part 1).

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

Figure 5.

Second products (Part 2).

Figure 6.

First products changed to produce bet-

ter-crafted second pr o d u c t s.

Figure 7.

First products expanded to make re-

lated second products.

that one could indeed generate many viable, different, creative

ideas.

Creative aspects of products. Participants’ identification of

the most creative aspects of both the first product and the sec-

ond product are shown in Table 12. In both trials, three of the

eight components of a creative product (Cropley, 2000) were

Figure 8.

Second products related by category to

the first products.

Figure 9.

Second products inspired by the first

products of others.

recognized by participants in their work: well-craftedness, aes-

thetic appeal, and relevance. Two other components, originality

and usefulness, were mentioned once in the two trials. The

remaining three components of creative products listed by

Cropley, complexity, understandability, and germinality (in-

troducing a new way of conceptualizing an area by opening up

new approaches to the problem (Runco & Pritzker, 2011) were

not discussed as most creative traits of products. However, the

set of products produced exhibited all eight of these traits; par-

ticipants just did not recognize the last three traits as being their

products’ most creative aspects. For example, one of the first

products, the candy sucker, showed germinality because it in-

troduced a new way of thinking about products using the bottle

bottom pieces. Instead of using the pieces as part of a plastic

product, the inventor used the pieces as molds to make a candy

product. This was an entirely new way of viewing the problem.

Influences and ideas for products. Table 13 explains the

participants’ skills that influenced the creation of their products.

Most participants mentioned content knowledge within a do-

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

602

Table 12.

Most creative aspects of produc t de ter mined by maker.

Product Frequency Specific Creative Aspect General Creative

Category

6 Solving a technical

problem with t he product

in an effective way Well-craftedness

4 Appea ling phy sic a l

appearance of the product Pleasingness or

aesthetic appeal

Product wa s construc t ed

from given and available

items; no new components

had to be purchased

Relevance

1 T a king a co mmon ide a and

making it unique Originality

First

1 Being able to make

something that stood up to

my standards Well-craftedness

Product wa s construc t ed

from given and available

items; no new components

had to be purchased

Relevance

4 Solving a technical

problem with t he product

in an effective way Well-craftedness

4 Appea ling phy sic a l

appearance of the product Pleasingness or

aesthetic appeal

Second

1 Functionality of the

product Usefulness

main, experience and preparation, and cognitive skills from

various domains as influencing their product choice, as these

are dimensions (along with social-emotional processes, family

aspects, cultural aspects, and historical forces) of creative de-

velopment leading to successful product creation in a domain

(Feldman, 1999). These findings indicate that participants tend-

ed to create their products in domains with which they had

experience and psychological comfort. Several personality

traits were also mentioned: active imagination, playful attitude,

patience, flexibility, and ability to restructure problems. These

personality traits or abilities were five of 11 listed by Cropley

(2000).

Table 14 shows how the students obtained their ideas when

creating both the first and second products. During the creation

of the first product, many participants imposed criteria on their

product choices, more than the second trial in which they

tended to use a strategy to modify their first product. Those

who created a new product, somehow related to the first prod-

uct but not a modification or improvement of it, seemed to be

the ones who reported imposing new criteria on their work for

the second trial. Those whose second products were improve-

ments of their first tended to report using strategies to obtain

ideas.

Perceptions of creativity. Table 15 documents the partici-

pants’ perceptions of personal creativity and creativity of prod-

ucts during the study, from the initial activity to the final prod-

uct. T-tests were conducted to determine if statistically signifi-

cant differences existed between perceived general creativity

from the beginning to the end of the study and between per-

ceived creativity of the first and second products. No significant

differences were found. This result may be related to the time

span of the study being fairly short (5 weeks), the fact that par-

ticipants had practiced some creative techniques with other

Table 13.

Skills reported that influenced their product choice and creation.

Frequency Skills That Influenced P roduct Origin

7 Drawing, cutting, craft and paintin g

experience allowed

conceptualization of the product

Domain c o ntent

knowledge and

experience

5 Active imagination and ability to

visualize Personality trait

5 Access to and expertise w i t h a drill

and duct tape

Domain c o ntent

knowledge and

experience

3 Sewing/crocheting/knitting skills Domain content

knowledge and

experience

3 Experience with theater and set

design

Domain c o ntent

knowledge and

experience

2 Science kn owledge Domain content

knowledge and

experience

2 Playful attitude Personality trait

2 Experienc e in choco l ate candy

making, cooking, baking

Domain c o ntent

knowledge and

experience

2 Art and décor design Domain c o ntent

knowledge and

experience

1 Patience Personality t r ait

1 Modeling/sc ulp tin g skil ls Domain content

knowledge and

experience

1 Ability to adapt items ( flexibility)

and restructure problems Personality t r ait

assignments previously in the course, and participants rated

themselves as quite creative (about “7” on a scale of 1 to 10) at

the outset of the study.

Conclusion

The current investigation compared participants’ problem

solving process to several popular models. The model with the

fewest stages was Adair’s (2010) three-pillared bridge. The first

pillar was “defining the problem”; the second pillar was “gen-

erating feasible options”; and the last pillar was “choosing the

optimum course/solution” (Adair, 2010: p. 53).

The participants in this study took a similar approach in us-

ing restrictions to better define the given loosely-defined prob-

lem, generating solutions through several activities, and then

choosing an optimal product that fit their restrictions. These

restrictions often included time, skill, and cost constraints. Re-

finement of several products took place as participants made

their second products, but inspiration sparked expansion of

products, new, yet related, products or entirely different prod-

ucts resulting from combinations of ideas. Imposing additional

criteria often led to unique, less strongly-connected second pro-

ducts.

Participant reflections revealed personal implicit theories of

characteristics of creative products as original, visually appeal-

ing, complex, functional, well-crafted, and relevant. The two

creative product criteria recognized by Cropley (2000), but not

mentioned explicitly by study participants were understandabil-

ity and germinality. As mentioned previously, one product, the

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

Table 14.

Method of obtaining i de a f or product as reported by participants.

Product Frequency Method of Obtaining Idea or C onstraint Category

3 Challenged myself to make something entertaining—A toy Imposed criteria

3 I connected to something I saw an d made a similar product Strategy

3 Wanted to make somet hing really different Imposed criteria

2 I challenged myself to make it all from recycled mate ri als Imposed criteria

2 I looked around my house for materials and ideas Strategy

2 Reviewed the ideas I had gene rated earlie r and my list of constraints Strategy

2 Wanted to incorporate a particular technique Imposed criteria

1 Challenged myself to make something visually appealing Imposed criteria

1 Considered problems of others and how my product might solve them Strategy

1 I decided to m ake a decorative item Imposed criteria

1 Manipulated the pieces to gain ideas Strategy

First

1 The pieces played with light so I wanted to make a product using this aspect Imposed criteria

5 Desire to make a useful product Imposed criteria

3 Inspired by classmate’s product Strategy

3 Wanted to use a particular technique Imposed criteria

2 Modified original product to improve it Strategy

1 Decided to de pict a favorite a nimal Imposed criteria

1 Learne d a technique from other products Strategy

1 Manipulating the pieces helped me generate an idea Strategy

1 Saw something at home and adapted i t Strategy

Second

1 Use SCAMPER Technique to gain ideas Strategy

Table 15.

Creativity in recent work and in general on a scale of 1 to 10 in which 1 is not creative and 10 is very creative.

Mean creativi t y rating

of initial ideas for

possible products

Mean general

creativity r eported at

the time of rating the

initial ideas

Mean creativi t y rating

of the first product

Mean general

creativity rating at the

time of first product

Mean creativi t y rating

of the second product

Mean general

creativity r eported at

the time of second

product

6.9 (1.6) 6.7 (1.3) 6.8 (1.5) 6.9 (0.8) 7.2 (1.8) 7.1 (1.2)

Note: Standard deviations given in parentheses.

candy suckers made from using the juice bottle bottoms as a

mold, introduced the conception of using the given materials to

manufacture the product rather than as an actual part of the

final product. This candy sucker product can therefore be con-

sidered as representing germinality. All products, once named,

were understandable. Perhaps participants did not mention this

aspect because it was assumed that the product needed to be

understandable.

The authors hope that this journey into the problem solving

process will be useful for others as an in-depth example of how

different people approached the same loosely-defined problem.

All were successful in solving the problem in interesting,

unique ways. The large variety of products from different cate-

gories shows that participants were able to overcome functional

fixedness of the circular, dish-shaped given material to generate

items with many configurations and uses. Many useful insights

were generated as participants approached the problem a sec-

ond time and considered the inventions of classmates.

Suggestions for Future Research

In-depth problem solving studies such as the current study

might be implemented with younger participants such as ele-

mentary students to investigate differences and similarities in

the process. Two notable early childhood problem-solving

studies have been conducted: toddlers working with cylinders

and spheres (Geiken, 2011) and first graders working with

wooden block ramps and pathways for rolling marbles (Van

Meeteren, 2013). Few other early childhood studies have been

completed to investigate the invention process of younger chil-

dren.

An investigation of participants of multiple ages might reveal

developmental changes in approaches. This invention problem

solving project might be a good activity for residents of a retire-

ment community or a mental health facility. The creative prob-

lem solving process might facilitate social connections, usage

of prior knowledge and skills, and a sense of satisfaction in the

C. K. DOAK ET AL.

604

making of a creative product.

Implications for Classroom Practice

This article can be used as an example of the problem solv-

ing process. A teacher wanting to integrate problem solving

with a content area might provide similar given recycled items

to students and restrict the problem to one related to the content

being studied. For example, if a unit on African history is being

studied, students might make African musical instruments,

architectural models, costumes, jewelry, or masks. If the con-

tent area is science, students might make water or rock cycles,

atomic models, planetary mobiles, laboratory equipment, mod-

els of fossil life, or a diag ram of the parts of a flower. This pro-

ject might also serve as a model for adult groups creating holi-

day decorations for charity bazaars from recycled materials.

Even though the current project extended over a five-week

period, only about one hour per week was spent specifically

working in class on this project. The authors suggest that class

instructors implementing a similar product-making project al-

low more class time for reflection and discussion of ideas, par-

ticularly if the students are enrolled in K-12 schools rather than

being adults in a graduate course.

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