The Enforcement of Occupational Safety and Health Requirements in Public and Private Sectors in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates ()
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the Study
The United Arab Emirates government assumes the role of protecting the health and safety of all employees as enshrined under several laws and programmes following the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) conventions related to workers’ rights [1] . Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) requirements in Abu Dhabi Emirate (the capital of UAE) were established after issuing The Executive Council Decree No. 42 of 2009 on the Environment, Health and Safety Management System (EHSMS) of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi [2] . OSH roles and responsibilities have been published and enforced officially in Abu Dhabi Emirate since 2010 by the Abu Dhabi Occupational Safety and Health Centre—OSHAD (2016). The OSHAD enforcing agency directly reports to the Abu Dhabi Executive Council, the Emirate’s highest authority.
Figure 1 illustrates the hierarchical structure of the OSHAD-SF administration. The OSHAD-SF consists of a series of mandatory and explanatory requirements that apply to government and public sector activities. The level of implementing health and safety requirements depends mainly on the level of risk and types of activities [3] . The level of risk is determined by many factors defined in the OSHAD-SF Mechanism 3.0—Identification, Assessment & Nomination of Entities. One of the main requirements for high-risk entities is “The Elements”, which explains the requirements of the high-risk entity in terms of procedures to be developed, implemented, and maintained. The elements document includes nine elements stipulating the requirements of OSH roles and responsibilities: risk management, management of contractors, communication and consultation, emergency management, training and competency, and management review.
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Figure 1. The Abu Dhabi Emirate OSHAD-SF administration hierarchy. Source: Adopted from OSHAD (2018).
1.2. Problem Statement
The limited enforcement of the Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSH) in the Arab country stems from the need to protect employees and workers in various areas. Injuries are the second leading cause of death in Abu Dhabi, with occupational injuries accounting for 16% of the total injuries in 2020, which increased to 22% [4] . Humans may induce injuries, emanate from animals, or be inflicted by equipment, falling objects, or hazardous items. The significance of the matter is crucial due to the nature of the popular industries in the UAE. The health risks from injuries may be simple in terms of cuts or horrific, such as the loss of limbs [5] . The construction, manufacturing, and retail sectors are amongst the biggest entities in the nation, despite the dangers associated with the firms related to physical injuries.
1.3. Aims and Objectives of the Study
The main aim of this study is to examine the implementation of the Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSH) Framework in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Further, the objectives of the study are:
1) To determine the occupational benefit and health programs to ensure employee safety and improve business performance.
2) To investigate the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety measures.
3) To provide a comparative analysis between best practices in public and private sectors in advanced countries and those practised in Abu Dhabi.
4) To analyse the positive changes in the health and safety system and business efficiency and productivity improvements.
1.4. Research Questions
To achieve the aim of this study, the following three main questions must be answered by the research:
1) Research Question 1: What are the methods of enforcing OSH requirements used in the advanced countries in public and private sectors? The subquestions are as follows:
a) What are the methods of OSH enforcement used in the United Kingdom by the Health and Safety Executive in Great Britain “HSE-UK”?
b) What are the methods of OSH enforcement used in the United States of America by the United States Department of Labour Occupational Safety and Health Administration “OSHA”?
c) What are the methods of OSH enforcement used in Australia by the Australian Government Safe Work Australia?
d) What are the methods of OSH enforcement used by OSHD?
2) Research Question 2: What are the best methods for enforcing OSH requirements on public and private sectors in the UAE and the Abu Dhabi Emirates in particular?
3) Research Question 3: To what extent do the selected methods protect employees, reduce incident rates and increase business performance? The subquestions are as follows:
a) What are the incident rates before and after enforcing OSH requirements?
b) What is the business performance before and after enforcing OSH requirements?
1.5. Significance of the Study
One of the key contributions of the study is to expand the empirical evidence on the subject by focusing on Abu Dhabi, for which there is insufficient evidence available. The country’s workplace culture and regulatory norms differ from that of the majority of Western countries, which have remained the focal point of most of the previous studies on OSH enforcement and compliance. Several Western countries have embedded OSH guidelines in their work culture, realising the monetary and other costs associated with the negligence. By contrast, in Abu Dhabi, OSH enforcement and compliance are yet to be entrenched as a safety measure norm and remain merely a regulation. Thus, addressing the OSH enforcement in Abu Dhabi will help diversify the empirical evidence on the subject. In addition to this, an important part of the research is to present the business or financial aspect of enforcing the OSH standards. There is a need, however, to note that it is still unclear how or to what extent the OSH protocol and measures help a firm gain financial stability or long-term sustainability.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Introduction
This chapter focuses on the literature available in this study area, identifies the best OSH practices worldwide, and compares them to those in Abu Dhabi. Specifically, the practices of OSH standards in the USA, UK, Singapore, and Australia are examined. The selected literature review identifies the enforcement practices focusing on the available programmes meant to encourage or incentivise compliance with OSH standards. Additionally, the benefits of OSH compliance are discussed. This provides recommendations that advise on the scope for Abu Dhabi in UAE. Further, this chapter examines how Abu Dhabi lags in policy adoption and enforcement.
2.2. Literature Search
The literature search was conducted through various online databases. The research questions defined the area of focus for the literature review. Consequently, the use of a comprehensive list of sources was justifiable. The search optimisation technique involved appropriate keywords and a focus on specific countries. The search of the sources in the databases involved the use of a combination of keywords including but not limited to occupational work safety standards, enforcement of workplace safety and health standards, best ways of enforcing workplace safety standards, benefits of enforcing workplace safety standards, and the challenges of enforcing workplace safety and health standards in Abu Dhabi. The keywords later formed pertinent themes for the literature review. Studies related to this research topic were sampled.
2.3. Benefits Incurred from OSHAD-SF Implementation: A Business Perspective
Abu Dhabi Government confirms the government’s positive and increasing role in promoting OSH culture in practice. OSHAD-SF can benefit from improved OSH standards in the workplace in both the private and public sectors. Private and public entities must meet and strive to exceed the required level and maintain high compliance with OSH guidelines [6] . The benefit provided by OSHAD-SF can reduce corporate liabilities and risks. This framework can reduce workplace injuries, incidents, and illness [3] .
The field of OSH combines or contradicts the topics of human capital and business profitability. Therefore, it is important to look at the underpinning concepts related to the enforcement of OSH requirements. One of the fundamental theories in this regard is the Resource-Based View (RBV) theory [7] , which combines aspects of human capital and structural capital. According to Goh and Loosemore [8] , organisations compete with their resources, where humans comprise one of the company’s central resources, followed by buildings, equipment, tools, and other assets and resources. In case of any occupational safety issue and health-related injury, a company’s human capital and structural capital are in jeopardy, thus damaging the firm’s resource standing.
Núñez and Villanueva add that companies gain a competitive advantage when their resources are unique and cannot be duplicated [9] . In this context, providing a safe and risk-free work environment can be used as a resource to gain a unique identity in the market. For example, a firm can promote itself as the safest place to work in the relative industry by showing statistical facts regarding the number of injuries in the past years. Another critical dimension is provided by Kheng-Khor and Surienty [10] , explaining the relationship between a safer workplace and employee involvement.
2.4. Comparative Description of OSH Methods of Enforcement
The initial step of the comparative analysis was a scoping review study, intending to systematically review all relevant studies and narrow it down to the ones that focus on one or more of the targeted regions: 1) the USA, 2) the UK, 3) Australia, and 4) Singapore. The reason for choosing these countries is because of their leading position in OSH standards and implications. The USA and the UK have considerable representation in the OSH international body, which reveals the role of these countries in designing and implementing the policies. Furthermore, Singapore and Australia have enjoyed significant development in their workplace safety sector over the past decade. Their examples can be used to compare with the Abu Dhabi workplace health and safety measures to present a contrasting or parallel viewpoint.
2.4.1. The United States of America (USA)
The implementation of OSH measures is governed by the OSH Act of 1970. Importantly, the passage of the OSH Act was to ensure safe and healthy working conditions and environment for any worker in the USA. According to McQuistoan et al. [11] , OSH enforcement in the USA is based on the deterrence theory, whereby strict and swift actions are taken against firms not meeting safety standards. The actions include hefty fines and ordering work to stop. A survey of 6842 manufacturing plants, which were inspected and cited by OSHA between 1979 and 1985, found that a 22% reduction of injuries was recorded in these plants after the inspection. Legal policies for meeting the safety standards include regular inspections from the OSHA and implementing legal fines and other punishments like suspending business operations.
Different states of the USA have forwarded different OSH enforcement programmes. Oregon and Washington have initiated programmes that raise awareness through electronic access to data [12] . This includes enabling private and public entities personnel to access information pertinent to OSH standards and regulations through voice, videos, and written content on the internet, including portals. Many states have partnerships meant to improve compliance with OSH standards. Table 1 shows chronological events leading to the full development of the OSH guidelines in the USA. The first industrial safety initiative was implemented in 1912, with a core concept of promoting the prevention of accidents. The original initiative was developed for at least six decades to include safety standards and relevant enforcement programmes.
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Table 1. Timeline of notable OSH Initiatives in the U.S.
2.4.2. The United Kingdom (UK)
The research follows the UK framework on OHS that follows twelve statutes founded on different Acts of Parliament over time. Compliance with the OHS Act of 1969 was the first move for the UK government towards OHS. It maintains that businesses should be insured against litigations that emanate from injuries or health conditions related to the workplace. Firms should be ready to compensate workers, which enhances their confidence. The Act advises that employers may have to cater to health-related problems that may be outside the confines of the work premises [13] .
The Management of OHS Regulations Act of 1999 improved on the 1974 general OHS enactment. The former introduced specific rules for employers and employees with regard to OHS. Employers had to undertake risk assessments and create a hierarchy of the dangers within their environment. For instance, a cloth-making factory could indicate a rank of dangers, including fire from the textile-generating plant, cuts from the machinery, and breathing issues as a result of long-term exposure to chemicals. Consequently, it could introduce measures to curb the risks [14] . Also, the employer should inform the employees of the dangers in the working environment and relay the safety measures.
The OSH standards in the UK comprise five major principles. These are transparency, accountability, targeted, consistency, and proportionality [15] . Transparency ensures that all workers at a working station understand the OSH principles. Accountability ensures that the flow of responsibility is linear, right from the workers to the HSE, the minister, the parliament, and the public. Targeting elements refers to the direction of any standards towards the reduction and elimination of a certain hazard. Consistency then explains the congruency between any new standards and the existing laws and regulations. Proportionality measures the relation between risks and cost (Table 2).
2.4.3. Australia
According to Schofield et al. [16] , the OSH enforcement structure changed from the deterrence strategy to the responsive regulatory approach in the early 1990s. Ayres and Braithwaite [17] noted that the failure of a one-dimensional deterrence approach is that enforcement would vary across regions, and companies would always find a loophole in the enforcement strategy. The use of the “responsive regulatory approach” draws upon both coercive and persuasive enforcement measures. First, employers are educated and persuaded to make employee safety their utmost priority and follow all safety standards. Coercive sanctions are imposed when companies prove unresponsive to the softer measures.
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Table 2. The principle of proportionality.
To implement uniform safety standards across the country, a process of standards development and adoption was initiated by the National Uniformity Taskforce, headed by the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (NOSHC).
In Australia, the focus for OSH at workplaces is anchored on proactiveness and prevention rather than a reaction to the aftermath of incidents, including individual care [18] . The economic burst in Australia called for the creation and enactment of appropriate legislation meant to prevent accidents at workstations across Australia. There have been improvements across several sectors, with dramatic changes in terms of deaths, injuries, and disease, all originating from lapses in OSH standards. According to the National Occupational Health and Safety Strategy 2002-2012, Australia made significant progress in improving WHS outcomes, including a 41% reduction in the fatality rate and a 26% reduction in the work-related injuries rate during its life [19] . When compared to other nations, the level of safety and health awareness is higher in Australia, and thus, the country has a relatively healthy working population.
2.4.4. Singapore
The Singapore government has institutionalised the entire OSH framework in such a way that the stakeholders have now become the leaders of safety standards. This has brought a revolution in the OSH measures in the country. The Workplace Safety and Health Bill (WSHB) was passed in 2006, which directed that employers must maintain safety and health precautions in the workplace [20] . To illustrate this, Singaporean law requires employers to ensure workplaces have proper ventilation systems. The current state of workplace health and safety in Singapore involves practices that move away from mere compliance with the regulations and instead prioritise a performance-based approach under the WSH Act. The performance-based approach under the WSH Act requires employers and other stakeholders to work towards the reduction of risks and hazards at the workplace.
2.4.5. The Case of UAE
The national OSH legislation in UAE is based on the UAE’s federal law on labour enacted in 1980. Two years later, additional fundamental federal laws on the protection from hazards were enacted under Order No. 32 (1982) following Ministerial Decision No. 37/2 of 1982. Other hazard-specific regulations were enacted, such as the 2002 Federal Law No. 1 on use, monitoring and protection from radioactive material and other risks, which required the determination of retentive methods and measures for the protection of workers from the risks at work (Ministerial Order no 32-1982) [21] .
The OSHAD-SF has designed an internal audit framework, which entails the lagging and leading performance indicators. Firms are required to conduct the audit every 3 - 6 months, depending on the nature of the firm, and identify safety measures based on historical data on incidents and injuries (lagging indicators) and proactive measures to further improve the safety standards in the future (leading indicators). The audit also entails a detailed report on what corrections were made, how they were implemented, what improvements were recorded, and what changes did not work (Table 3).
2.5. Barriers and Challenges to OSH Enforcement
Abu Dhabi, and, by extension, the UAE, has many migrant workers employed in its vast industries, including construction, factories, farms, and industrial workshops. Abu Dhabi: The largest Emirate accounts for most of these workers, as well as the fatal injuries that cause death [22] . A large number of migrant workers and the many locals in vulnerable and hazardous occupations outstrip the nation’s ability to enforce OSH standards effectively. The UAE still faces barriers and challenges that include the lack of enough data on occupational injuries. The lack of such data makes it difficult to ascertain the most appropriate way of tackling the menace that awaits, such as fatal injuries. Notably, the lack of crucial data relating to occupational safety leads to situations where auditors cannot tell whether any reduced cases of serious injuries and fatalities are due to enhanced work safety measures or a slowdown in the workplace for hazardous occupations.
Following the implementation of OSH guidelines, fatal occupational injury rates have decreased in the UK, USA, Australia and Singapore, as summarised in Table 4.
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Table 3. Summary of OSH guidelines in Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom and Singapore.
2.6. Theoretical Framework
The main aim of deploying the resource-based view is to allow firms to take full advantage of the resources at their disposal to attain a specific goal/purpose. The resource-based view, as shown in the figure below, illustrates how firms in the United Arab can take advantage of resources at their disposal to influence the uptake/adoption of OSH guidelines in the country. The resources at the disposal of the firms are human resources (employees) and technology to monitor the progress of the models in action. The core competencies of the firms are their ability to liaise with key government entities. The UAE government has put in place strategies to create a good working environment through licensing and support, providing firms that comply to operate smoothly. The business capabilities of the firms are the ability to lower the rates of death, injury or trauma within their working environments. The combined effect of the three facets, therefore, allows firms to realise their full potential (through the resource-based view) and thus contribute to the adoption of OSH Guidelines in the United Arab Emirates, as shown in Figure 2 below.
2.7. Research Hypotheses
2.7.1. Enforcement of OSH and Incident Rates
The growing rate of occupational injuries can be associated with the prevalent barriers and challenges to OSH enforcement measures. There is still a substantial lack of awareness when it comes to safety protocols, and this is among the most prevalent barriers to OSH enforcement. As Ayres and Braithwaite [17] noted in a deterrence system, an ineffective inspection mechanism will result in employers exploiting employees and not adhering to safety standards. With the growing number of construction and other projects in the UAE, the periodic interval for inspection has become elongated, resulting in more injury cases going unnoticed and unreported. Other studies have highlighted financial constraints and the lack of resources to dedicate to OSH measures. There is sufficient evidence showing that the implementation of OSH guidelines is, therefore, likely to lead to a reduction in the incident rate of work-related injuries.
Hypothesis 1: The enforcement of OSH requirements in UAE positively correlated to a reduction in the rate of work-related injury.
2.7.2. Business Performance and Enforcement of OSH Requirements
A major obstacle in the enforcement of OSH standards is the lack of adequate
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Figure 2. The Resource-based view and its application on the OSH guideline implementation in the UAE.
and comprehensive OSH systems [23] . In some instances, corporate entities lack the financial power to hire qualified occupational safety staff as well as purchase personal protective equipment (PPE). There is an overemphasis on safety compliance from larger entities that make up a smaller proportion of the industry as compared to the many smaller ones that are characterised by financial instability and fragility. Specifically, inadequate funding for small businesses limits the adoption of work safety resources [24] .
While larger corporations are aware of the long-term benefits of investing in occupational safety, the smaller ones find such investments less attractive. When narrowing down to the type of industries, the construction industry is significantly affected. Specifically, in the construction industry, most companies are forced to place lower bids on construction project tenders to win. As a result, limited funding is allocated to enable total compliance with occupational health and safety guidelines. There is sufficient evidence showing that the involvement of various stakeholders and improvement in business operations may stimulate the adoption of OSH requirements.
Hypothesis 2: Business performance improvement in UAE firms is positively associated with the enforcement of OSH requirements.
2.8. Research Gap
The available literature does not adequately address workplace safety standards and practices for different countries globally, including the UAE. However, locating enough literature on the enforcement practices and solutions for Abu Dhabi has remained challenging. The available data from the lean literature does not focus on Abu Dhabi; hence, finding relevant information from across the world, including the benefits of enforcement of workplace safety standards, the challenges being faced in Abu Dhabi, and the best practices, is limited. The present study intends to evaluate quantitative aspects of the research aims and objectives. From the quantitative perspective, the present study is driven by an overarching hypothesis that the enforcement of OSH requirements is associated with decreased incident rates and enhanced business performance.
3. Methodology
3.1. Introduction
The chapter discusses the methodology used to conduct the study. This research used a positivist research approach to obtain occupational and safety experts’ views in the United Arab Emirates’ private and public sectors. The approach implies that the findings can be justified mathematically, even if they invoke immeasurable aspects. Research methods are a term used by researchers to refer to collecting and analysing data. This chapter presents the methods used by the researcher to conduct the study. The methodology begins with a discussion of the research paradigm, the research approach, the research design objectives, the types of data used, sampling strategies, data collection and analysis methods, the evaluation of the methods used, and ethical considerations.
3.2. Research Philosophy/Paradigm
In this study, a positivist approach was used because it stressed the significance of occupational safety and health requirements that are key in society. It was critical to get society’s views on the need to enforce OSH requirements in the UAE. The philosophy of positivism argues that human beings gain knowledge and facts through observation. In this paradigm, the researcher’s role is limited to the collection and interpretation of data objectively. Positivists argue that society relies on scientific evidence, especially from statistics and experiment [25] , which reveals how nature helps society operate.
3.3. Research Methods
This study relied on a quantitative approach because it combined because of its array of appeals. It helped the researcher tackle a broader and more complete range of research questions because they were not confined within any specific research method’s parameters. As it was an exploratory study, some 80 - 100 close-ended responses were deemed sufficient to serve the data’s purpose. The final questionnaire items comprised 25 close-ended questions. These research tools were deemed adequate for collecting data from the public and private firms in Abu Dhabi. The reason for narrowing it down to the public and private firms was the high safety risks associated with the firms and the firms’ association with OSH officials and specialists.
3.4. Participant Recruitment and Sampling
The present study targeted the workforce population in OSH-enforcing firms and government entities in the UAE. To ensure data validity, it was important to narrow down the study population to those enforcing or directly affected by OSH rules, including 1) HSE/OSH Assistant/Promoter, 2) HSE/OSH Supervisor, 3) HSE/OSH Officer, 4) HSE/OSH manager, and other personnel working directly in the field of health and safety maintenance in the workplace. This population was suitable because it works in a highly risky environment that needs a high-level emphasis on OSH rules and guidelines and, therefore, can provide suitable data needed to meet the research objectives.
The present study targeted employees from both public and private sectors, which enforce Abu Dhabi OSH safety standards. The target industries or sectors included construction, energy, government facilities, health and tourism. The target employee groups or categories included general workers, site supervisors, top management of organisations/companies considered, and OSH specialist officers. The details of the sample population, sample size, sample frame, sampling procedure and sources of sampling errors enrolled herein are summarised in Table 5.
Convenience sampling was used to select the participants for the interview because it is the most common form of non-probabilistic sampling strategy for collecting data for applications in the social sciences and business research (Galloway 2005). After narrowing down the respondents’ categories to take part in the interview, the researcher sought to find the most convenient time for the
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Table 5. Sample population, sample frame, sample size, sampling procedure and sources of sampling errors for general workers given questionnaire forms.
interviews. If they were not available within the time frame provided for the study, another interviewee was contacted. The random sampling technique was used for the participants who took part in the questionnaires. The participants were first put in homogenous groups based on their specialisations in OSH.
3.5. Research Design
The present study was an exploratory study to investigate the best OSH-enforcing measures in the private and government sectors in Abu Dhabi. To do this, a comparative analysis was carried out between Abu Dhabi OSH enforcement standards and those in the USA, the UK, Australia, and Singapore. Concerning this research aim, both close-ended and open-ended data have been collected in the study. The close-ended data aimed to give an idea of the current enforcement practices and whether appropriate protocols and implementation strategies have been designed [26] . On the other hand, the open-ended data served as an instrument for knowledge expansion and exploring the current best practices worldwide and what improvements need to be made in Abu Dhabi.
3.6. Data Collection
Primary data was collected because it was specific to the researcher’s needs at the time of data collection. The researcher was able to control the kind of data collected through follow-up questions on the respondents and seeking clarifications. The purpose of collecting the study’s primary data is to get first-hand information about the OSH standards and enforcement measures practised in different sectors in Abu Dhabi. It is important to note that there is a scarcity of empirical evidence pertinent to the Abu Dhabi corporate and public sector’s regulations and implementation of the OSH standards. Therefore, the primary data to be collected will try to fill this void.
3.7. Data Analysis
Quantitative data analysis of quantitative (survey questionnaire responses) will be performed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis, respectively. Quantitative data is best analysed statistically using descriptive statistics (means, standard deviation, range) and effect size measures (probability value), which can be achieved using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences—SPSS statistical software. The SPSS allows comparing quantitative variables to determine if they are significantly different. For instance, data on participants’ experience and role in OSH enforcement can be collected and used to carry out cross-tabulations between different participant groups. Using a chi-square test with cross-tabulations, it is possible to determine if there were significant group differences using variables of experience, position, and years of experience [27] .
The collected quantitative data from the questionnaire instruments were processed using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (Microsoft Excel for Windows) ready for statistical analysis. The Excel spreadsheet was imported into the International Business Machines (IBM’s) Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, version 28.0 [28] , Armonk, NY, USA). The characteristics of the sample were evaluated using descriptive statistics, where numerical data on basic demographics (age, gender, industry/sector, current position in HSE/OSH field, HSE/OSH education level, years of job experience, OSH professional credentials earned) of the study populations were presented using means and standard deviation; where appropriate, range. Using SPSS, the between-group differences in independent quantitative variables (individual survey responses measured using a 5-point Likert scale) were evaluated using a One-Way Analysis of Variance (One-Way ANOVA). In all statistical tests, a p-value < 0.05 was considered significant. Where appropriate, the analysis results were presented in tables and charts.
The validity, accuracy and credibility of the survey results were evaluated based on the sources of sampling error encountered during the actual distribution of survey instruments to respondents and the collection of responses. First, the sampling error was estimated mathematically using the following formula.
where:
Z = Z score value based on the confidence interval (approx. = 1.96)
σ = Population standard deviation
n = size of the sample
3.8. Ethical Considerations
As guided by the British Educational Research Association—BERA (2018), the Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research (EGER) were used to confirm the ethical implications of the current study. First, all participants were informed about the voluntary nature of their participation and the study’s objective, and their permission was sought to quote their interview responses [29] . Second, to ensure privacy and anonymity, no personal information such as real full names, email addresses, and phone numbers were collected during the surveys. In addition to this, the use of an audio or video recorder for interviews could have raised confidentiality, anonymity breaches, and problems of secure data storage. For this reason, the use of these items was completely avoided in the study.
The researcher avoided any form of discriminatory, offensive, and other unacceptable language in research while formulating the interview and questionnaire questions. The researcher also acknowledged any material borrowed from outside by providing in-text citations and a reference list using acceptable reference styles [30] . While conducting the interviews and analysing the collected data, the researcher maintained the highest level of objectivity. The researcher also adhered to acceptable Data Protection Acts. Additionally, all the respondents were respected by ensuring no psychological or physical harm was inflicted on them. The researcher also ensured that only the relevant components were assessed during the study. The researcher did not ask any irrelevant questions that were not critical in answering the research questions.
4. Results
4.1. Quantitative Results
4.1.1. Descriptive Results
This study included a total of 57 interview participants. For ease of reference to individual participants without identifying them by name, the participants were coded from P1 to P57 in conjunction with their attributes, as shown in Table 6 below.
As shown in Table 7 below, 43.9% of the participants were OSH specialists 22.8% were general workers with incidents, and 33.3% were general workers without incidents. The participants were from different sectors, with the highest number being from the Construction sector (27.1%), followed by the participants from the Government sector (25%), the health sector (20.8%), the Tourism sector (12.5%), Worker Village Admin sector (10.4%) and the Energy sector (4.2%). A high number of participants were males (78.9%). As shown in Table 7, the mean age of the participants was 36.3 (SD = 7.683) years, and the mean years of experience were 9.5 (SD = 5.037). The participants were selected from organisations with 1197.8 (SD = 1742.073) mean number of employees and 9.6 (SD = 20.715) mean the number of OSH officers.
Surveys were also carried out with 95 OSH specialists. The majority of the participants (35.79%) had years of experience of 6 - 9, while 17.89% of them had 10 - 13 years of experience 27.37% had an OSH experience of more than 13 years 16.84% had 2 - 5 years of experience, and 2.11% had less than two years. Concerning the level of education 29.79% of the participants had a certificate, and 29.79% had a diploma. The participants with an undergraduate degree made up 10.64%, while those with a postgraduate degree made up 23.40% (Table 7).
Objective 1: To examine occupational benefits and health programmes to ensure employee safety and improve business performance
Table 8 shows findings from General Workers and General Workers with incidents. Concerning OSH awareness/understanding of employees and supervisors, participants (General Workers and General Workers with incidents) from the Construction sector had a mean score of 4 (SD = 0.408), the Government sector had a mean score of 4 (SD = 0.900), Health 4 (SD = 0.707), and Worker Village Admin 4 (SD = 1.414). Overall, the findings presented in Table 8 indicate that participants (General Workers and General Workers with incidents) considered OSH awareness/understanding of employees and supervisors to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 1.414). Table 8 also shows that the participants considered time and effort spent on worksite supervision and enforcement of safety protocols to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 0.663). The findings also indicate that the participants considered the frequency of site inspections to ensure site and equipment safety to be excellent (Mean = 5, SD = 0.510) (Table 9).
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Table 6. Participants’ codes and their attributes.
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Table 7. Summary of the study interview demographics.
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Table 8. Description of the survey participants (n = 95 OSH specialists).
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Table 9. General workers and general workers with incidents responses on the occupational benefit and health programmes to ensure employee safety and improve business performance.
For the OSH specialists (n = 95), the findings shown in Table 10 indicate that regarding the level of OSH awareness/understanding of employees and supervisors in the organisation, the participants had a mean score of 3.89, which indicates that the participants perceived the level of OSH awareness/understanding of employees and supervisor to be good. Table 10 also indicates that the OSH specialists (n = 93) perceived the top management commitment to enforcing OSH within their organisations, including the worksites, to be good, as indicated by a mean of 4.08. OSH specialists perceived the frequency of internal inspections done in your organisation to ensure compliance with OSH requirements (self-regulation) to be good, as indicated by a mean of 4.05.
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Table 10. OSH specialists’ responses on the occupational benefit and health programmes to ensure employee safety and improve business performance.
One-way ANOVA was carried out to determine whether there was a difference in the benefit and health programmes focused on employee safety and improving business performance across the different sectors. The assessment involved the summation of the scores for the three questions (Protocol 1, Protocol 2, and Protocol 3), with the maximum expected score being 15 and a minimum of 3. As shown in Table 11, participants from the Energy sector had the highest score of 15. The mean total score for the other sectors was Construction (M = 9.4, SD = 5.902), Government (M = 12.4, SD = 1.988), Health (M = 11.5, SD = 4.928), Tourism (M = 4, SD = 6.928), and Worker Village Admin (M = 13.0, SD = 2.828).
However, as shown in Table 11, the observed differences in scores were not significantly different (F = 1.728, P = 0.168). Therefore, the benefit and health programmes focused on employee safety and improving business performance do not differ across the different sectors (Table 12).
Objective 2: To investigate the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety measures.
To address objective 2, participants responded to three questions that were scored on a 5-point Likert scale. Overall, the findings presented in Table 13 indicate that participants considered the level of support received in the workplace to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 1.000). The participants also considered the documentation of OSH standards for the firm in all processes to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 0.779). Table 13 also indicates that participants considered the level of top management support and commitment provided to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 0.757).
For the OSH specialists (n = 94), the findings shown in Table 13 indicate that regarding the level of management support provided to ensure OSH compliance, the participants had a mean score of 4.05, which indicates that the participants perceived the level of management support provided to ensure OSH compliance to be good. Table 14 also indicates that the OSH specialists (n = 95) perceived the level of internal cooperation and support received to ensure OSH compliance to be good, as indicated by a mean of 3.95. Concerning the effectiveness of OSH self-regulation within the organisation, participants perceived it to be good, as indicated by a mean of 3.81 (Table 14).
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Table 11. Assessment of the difference in the benefit and health programmes focused on employee safety and improving business performance across the different sectors.
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Table 12. One-way ANOVA analysis of the difference in the benefit and health programmes focused on employee safety and improving business performance across the different sectors.
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Table 13. General workers and general workers with incidents responses on the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety measures.
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Table 14. OSH specialist’s responses on the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety measures.
One-way ANOVA was carried out to determine whether there were differences in how participants from the various sectors viewed the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety. The assessment involved the summation of the scores for the three questions (Protocol-4, Protocol-5, and Protocol-7), with the maximum expected score being 15 and a minimum of 3. As shown in Table 15, participants from the Energy sector had the highest score of 15. The mean total score for the other sectors was Construction (M = 10.3, SD = 6.585), Government (M = 12.1, SD = 3.388), Health (M = 11.4, SD = 4.749), Tourism (M = 4, SD = 6.928), and Worker Village Admin (M = 12.5, SD = 3.536) (Table 15).
However, the observed differences in scores were not significantly different (F = 1.293, P = 0.301). Therefore, there was no statistically significant difference in how participants from the various sectors viewed the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety (Table 16).
Objective 3: To provide a comparative analysis between the advanced countries’ best practices in public and private sectors and those practised in Abu Dhabi
To address objective 3, participants responded to four questions that were scored on a 5-point Likert scale. Overall, the findings presented in Table 17 indicate that participants considered the OSH regulatory requirements and enforcement in Abu Dhabi to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 0.651). The participants also considered the frequency of training and seminars provided to all employees to educate them about OSH standards and requirements to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 0.645). Table 17 also shows that participants also considered the safety
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Table 15. Assessment of the difference in how participants from the various sectors viewed the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety.
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Table 16. ANOVA analysis of how participants from the various sectors viewed the current occupational areas with substandard health and safety.
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Table 17. General workers and general workers with incidents responses on best practices in public and private sectors and that practised in Abu Dhabi.
of the working environment to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 0.927). The participants from the surveys also considered the correctness of signage displayed in high-risk areas to be good (Mean = 4, SD = 0.624) (Table 18).
One-way ANOVA was carried out to determine whether there were differences in the best practices across various sectors. The assessment involved the summation of the scores for the four questions (Protocol-6, Implement-1, Implement-2 and Implement-3), with the maximum expected score being 20 and a minimum of 4. As shown in Table 19, participants from the Energy sector had the highest score of 19. The mean total score for the other sectors was Construction (M = 13, SD = 8.142), Government (M = 16.7, SD = 3.251), Health (M = 14.1, SD = 6.010), Tourism (M = 5.7, SD = 9.815), and Worker Village Admin (M = 15.5, SD = 2.121).
However, the observed differences in scores were not significant (F = 1.396, P = 0.263). Therefore, there was no statistically significant difference in how participants from the various sectors viewed Abu Dhabi’s health and safety best practices (Table 19).
Objective 4: To analyse the positive changes in the healthcare system and improvements in business efficiency and productivity.
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Table 18. OSH specialists’ responses on the best practices in public and private sectors and that practised in Abu Dhabi.
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Table 19. Assessment of the difference in the best practices across various sectors.
To address objective 4, participants responded to four questions that were scored on a 5-point Likert scale. Overall, the findings presented in Table 20 indicate that participants considered the use of smart sensors and IT technology to identify and prevent injuries more efficiently to be satisfactory. Findings also indicate that the participants considered the decline in the rate of injuries over the last 3 - 5 years to be good. Participants from the Government, Health, Construction, and Tourism sectors considered the organisation’s effectiveness of hazard reporting and response to be good. The participants also considered the effectiveness of consultation with employees on OSH matters to be good.
Table 21 indicates that the OSH specialists (n = 94) perceived the use of information technology to implement the OSH, monitor compliance and detect
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Table 20. ANOVA Analysis of differences in the best practices across various sectors.
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Table 21. General Workers and General Workers with incidents responses on positive changes in the healthcare system and improvements in business efficiency and productivity.
OSH violations to be good, as indicated by a mean of 3.72. OSH specialists (n = 93) also perceived the decline in the rate of injuries over the last 3 - 5 years to be good, as indicated by a mean of 3.97. Table 21 also indicates that the OSH specialists (n = 94) perceived the effectiveness of hazard reporting and response in your organisation to be good, as indicated by a mean of 3.83. The findings in Table 21 also indicate that the OSH specialists perceived the consultation with employees on OSH matters to be good, as indicated by a mean of 3.79.
One-way ANOVA was carried out to determine whether the positive changes in the healthcare system and improvements in business efficiency and productivity vary across the various sectors. The assessment involved the summation of the scores for the four questions (Implement 4, Implement 5, Implement 6 and Implement 7), with the maximum expected score being 20 and a minimum of 4. As shown in Table 22, participants from the Energy sector had the highest score of 18. The mean total score for the other sectors was Construction (M = 12.4, SD = 7.909), Government (M = 16.4, SD = 3.457), Health (M = 14.1, SD = 6.151), Tourism (M = 5.3, SD = 9.638), and Worker Village Admin (M = 16.5, SD = 0.707).
However, the observed differences in scores were not significant (F = 1.515, P = 0.224). Therefore, there was no statistically significant difference in how participants from the various sectors viewed the positive changes in the healthcare system and improvements in business efficiency and productivity (Table 23).
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Table 22. OSH participant’s responses on positive changes in the healthcare system and improvements in business efficiency and productivity.
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Table 23. Assessment of the positive changes in the healthcare system and improvements in business efficiency and productivity.
4.1.2. Inferential Results
A summary of key survey findings is summarised in Table 24. The assessment of the benefit and health programmes focused on employee safety and improving business performance across the different sectors was carried out through the summation of the scores for the three questions (Protocol 1, Protocol 2, and Protocol 3) (Table 25).
5. Discussion
5.1. Introduction
The purpose of this mixed-method research was to examine and explore the enforcement of occupational safety and health requirements in public and private sectors in Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates. Survey questionnaires and interview questions were used to collect relevant data from Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) specialists in different sectors, including construction, energy, government, health, and tourism. The rationale for undertaking this study was informed by the rising cases of occupational health hazards across Abu Dhabi [31] . Recent reports show that a large number of immigrant workers and many locals in the construction sector, factories, farms, and industrial workshops remain vulnerable to occupational hazards in their workplaces. While much remains to be known about occupational health and safety issues in Abu Dhabi, more is yet to be known regarding the enforcement of OSH requirements in public and private sectors in Abu Dhabi, thereby the need for this research.
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Table 24. ANOVA analysis of the positive changes in the healthcare system and improvements in business efficiency and productivity.
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Table 25. Summary of key survey findings.
To investigate this identified OSH enforcement knowledge gap in private and public workplaces in Abu Dhabi, three research questions were developed. Research Question 1 was intended to discover the following: What are the methods of enforcing OSH requirements used in the advanced countries in the public and private sectors? Research Question 2 was created to identify the following: What are the best methods to enforce OSH requirements on public and private sectors in the UAE and Abu Dhabi? Research Question 3 was created to examine the following: To what extent do the selected methods protect employees, reduce incident rates, and increase business performance? The current chapter contributes to the understanding of these research questions and the research problem. Survey results and interview findings are discussed chronologically in light of the research questions, past literature on the topic, and the resource-based view (RBV) theoretical frameworks. Points of contention and convergence concerning the past studies are presented while giving potential explanations for the observed findings.
5.2. Analysis of Key Findings
Regarding the methods for enforcing OSH requirements, it was established that countries like the UK have the best OSH enforcement measures. Some of the major factors that make countries like the UK have the best OSH enforcement methods include the comprehensive nature of their OSH frameworks, enforcing regulations embedded in legal frameworks, and regulatory punishments. These findings echo past literature regarding the potential impact of legal obligations, contractual requirements, and implementation guidelines on the successful enforcement of OSH requirements [32] . Similar observations have been made in the procurement sector where companies are likely to enforce OSH guidelines when they have adequate guidelines and legal obligations to ensure safety at the workplace [33] . In light of these considerations, it may be stated that having in place reinforcement mechanisms, legal obligations, and contractual punishments for companies flouting OSH enforcement substantially contributes to the effective enforcement of occupational safety and health guidelines.
In Abu Dhabi, having in place legal frameworks, comprehensive guidelines, and regulatory punishments might not be enough in enforcing OSH guidelines. A major concern is that since there are a high number of work-related safety and health issues in different industries, the implementation process on the ground might be lacking. According to the survey findings, the laxity to implement or enforce OSH guidelines might be overcome through regular inspections and audit processes. Rather, the regulatory body in Abu Dhabi (i.e., the OSHAD) has limited functions that include inspecting and preparing audit reports. These reports are then sent to various legal bodies for assessment and imposition of penalties in case of any infringements [34] . Lack of legal obligation for OSHAD to audit OSH enforcement in private and public sectors and discipline culprits has been noted to be counterproductive.
Regarding the question of the most effective approaches to enforcing OSH, the researchers noted that private and public sectors lack positive reinforcement when implementing OSH guidelines. These observations may be explained by the RBV model where lack of commitment to allocate resources to OSH guidelines may be a primary factor for laxity among private and public entities to implement health and safety guidelines at their workplaces in Abu Dhabi. Effective communication mechanisms are highly critical to ascertain the level of safety measures to achieve cooperation and support and cooperation in maintaining an injury-free workplace. Therefore, communicative language mechanisms are needed when enforcing OSH frameworks to complement the technical and practical safety of all the workers, especially in Abu Dhabi. A growing body of literature is in consensus that an unambiguous safety communication mechanism will ensure improvement in knowledge and understanding of preventative measures that would enhance workplace safety practices [35] . These observations align with the current study findings where developing the communicative plan is key to the long-term achievement of OSH implementation goals in Abu Dhabi.
Research question 3 intended on establishing the relationship between employee wellbeing and business performance. Findings revealed that the OSH framework promotes a raft of strategies that are central to protecting employees and reducing accident rates. As a result of the health and safety measures in place through OSH frameworks, there is increased employee productivity that largely contributes to better business performance. Four major OSH implementation approaches were identified to be central in enhancing employee safety and ensuring accident reduction. These approaches included the following: 1) promoting safe working environments such as proper flooring, ventilation, and fire exits; 2) frequent training and seminars to educate employees about OSH standards and safe handling of tools; 3) ensuring proper and visible labels are put on sites with higher risks of injuries; and 4) using smart sensors and IT technology to identify and prevent injuries more efficiently.
Availing a safe working environment ensured employee protection and safety. Key among the safe working settings included ensuring proper flooring, ventilation, and fire exits. Insights from the surveys showed that participants from the Government sector, Worker Village Admin, and Health sector considered a safe working environment to be excellent, while participants from tourism considered it to be excellent. The findings align with past studies which emphasise the need for a safe work environment in terms of protection from biological, chemical, and physical hazards [36] . Ensuring a safe physical environment potentially protects workers against hazards like poor air quality, extreme temperatures, radiation, and excessive noise. These physical hazards potentially expose workers to health risks such as respiratory problems, hearing loss, and chronic ailments like lung cancer. In Abu Dhabi private and public sectors, proper ventilation and flooring among other safe working conditions ensure that employees are protected from potential harm.
6. Conclusion
The purpose of this mixed-method research was to examine and explore the enforcement of occupational safety and health requirements in public and private sectors in Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates. Findings of this thesis revealed numerous methods of enforcing OSH requirements used in advanced countries in the public and private sectors. Survey results and interview findings revealed that various methods are used to enforce OSH requirements. The outcomes of this study also revealed that various methods are used to enforce OSH requirements, including undertaking frequent inspections, conducting impromptu checks of workplaces, and ensuring constant presence and authority of a higher regulatory body like OSHAD working collaboratively with Abu Dhabi companies. Creating a standard framework is another potential recipe for ensuring OSH enforcement in organisations. Findings also showed that enforcing OSH contributes to employee safety and injury reduction and increases business performance. Creating a working environment through proper flooring, ventilation, and fire exits, in addition to conducting frequent employee training services to ensure worker safety.
6.1. Research Implications
Current findings have potential implications for top management, employees, and regulatory bodies. First, in the case of the top management, there is a need to show more commitment to enforcing OSH requirements in their organisations. Findings from surveys and interviews revealed potential conflicts of interest, negative reinforcements, and low commitment to enforcing OSH in the public and private sectors. In terms of theoretical contributions, the study confirms the central role that resource allocation, topic management support, time spent on inspections and employee readiness have on successful OSH implementation. There is a need, however, to formulate a comprehensive conceptual framework on external and internal organisational factors that are likely to motivate public and private entities to embrace and enforce OSH guidelines in Abu Dhabi besides resource allocation as proposed under the RBV model. Early detection of potential hazards serves to inform measures to mitigate and reduce harm and injury to employees.
6.2. Recommendations for Practice and/or Policy
The results of this study provide potential recommendations for industry practice and policy development. Increased global competition necessitates organisations to enhance the best work ethics, business practices, and enhance workplace safety for employees. Under Vision 2030, the UAE aspires to be a leader in global business operations and align with the best international labour practices. Achieving this goal would require regulators to reform current OSH practices in private and public sectors to address identified hurdles and barriers to workplace health and safety. Failure to embrace and implement OSH requirements in Abu Dhabi could create a negative reputation and slow its Vision 2030 economic agenda of robust and globally competitive workplaces. Potential recommendations for industry practice need to be taken into consideration through policy changes. For example, public and private entities in Abu Dhabi show negative reinforcement and laxity in enforcing OSH. There should be regular audits, impromptu inspections, and close collaboration between organisations and regulatory bodies to ensure compliance with OSH requirements. Close collaboration and coordination among stakeholders could improve compliance rates when enforcing OSH in workplace sites.
6.3. Research Limitations
The current research was largely successful in addressing the formulated research problem regarding OSH enforcement in Abu Dhabi’s private and public sectors. However, there are potential limitations that might affect the findings. The study heavily relies on self-reported data for quantitative analysis. There is a likelihood of bias or misreporting, which is often associated with this method of data collection and analysis.
6.4. Future Research Recommendations
First, future surveys should consider recruiting a representative sample size to reflect OSH experts in private and public sectors in Abu Dhabi. For example, G*Power (a tool used to compute the statistical power of a required sample) analysis may be performed to determine a suitable representative sample from private and public sectors who may participate in future surveys. Second, the number of interviewees should also be increased in future studies to between 10 and 15 to achieve data saturation.
Third, future research should consider the need to triangulate data collection methods and sources of information. For example, focus group discussions, field observations, archive data, and minutes of board meetings from organisations may shed more light on how private and public sector entities in Abu Dhabi enforce OSH guidelines. Moreover, this study collected data from OSH experts, and there is a need for future studies to triangulate sources of information by including other stakeholders such as top management, leadership, insurers, and employees. Diversifying sources of information could help corroborate the current findings and enhance the generalisation of the findings to other sectors across the United Arab Emirates.
Appendix. Survey Questionnaire
General Worker Survey Questions
Rate your organisation and its OSH enforcement for the following statements.
5 = Excellent, 4 = Good, 3 = Satisfactory, 2 = Below Satisfactory, 1 = Poor.
If you have a history of workplace incidents, proceed to answer the following questions.