Positive Psychology, Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection Theory and Systemic Approach: Perspectives on Combined Applications ()
1. Introduction
The current paper is focused on the following research question: How can the systemic approach of Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection Theory (IPAR-Theory) be enhanced by the principles and interventions of positive psychology to promote mental well-being across different systems?
This paper presents a pioneering integration of Positive Psychology, Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection Theory (IPARTheory), and the systemic approach. The first section provides an in-depth exploration of the core concepts of Positive Psychology. In the second section, we examine the principles of IPARTheory and its clinical applications. The discussion then shifts to the systemic approach of IPARTheory, which highlights the interconnectedness of interpersonal dynamics. Finally, the paper investigates how Positive Psychology can enrich systemic clinical practice, offering a fresh perspective on therapeutic interventions and improving relational dynamics within the clinical setting.
2. Positive Psychology
Positive psychology approach emerged as a separate field in 1999 and it is described, by Martin Seligman (1999, 2002), as the one focusing on mental health, rather than mental illness or as the psychology of well-being. In fact, first Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) proposed a shift in research, from a rather negative focus, towards a more positive one. Since then, during over the past two decades, the positive psychology movement appears to gradually gain recognition worldwide (Compton & Hoffman, 2019; Fredrickson, 2001; Keyes & Haidt, 2003; Ivtzan et al., 2015; Joseph, 2021; Seligman, 2019; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014).
At the same time, it seems that the positive psychology movements tend to grow over the years, as some researchers propose new directions based on their perspectives and approaches. Mayer (2022) mentions the existence of a second and a third wave of positive psychology. Specifically, the second wave of positive psychology was developed by Wong (2009, 2011). He proposed the term of Existential Positive Psychology, suggesting that the work through the negative aspects of life is the way towards well-being or “suffering is necessary for flourishing” (Wong et al., 2021: p. 2). As for the third wave of positive psychology, it tends to consider the world in a more systemic way, focusing on capturing, understanding and impacting upon its complexity (Lomas et al., 2021).
As the interest on this field seems to be growing, even more researchers tend to study the results of psychological interventions embracing positive psychology-based frameworks. As Slade (2010) states, findings from positive psychology are important to mental health services, because of its general focus on a good life, being as a result relevant either to people with mental illness, or to people without mental illness. Specifically, it is not enough to just recover, so as to be considered to have complete mental health. It is of the same importance to be able to flourish, meaning to develop self-righting, self-efficacy and other characteristics with great impact on self-manage. Additionally, according to some researchers (Owens et al., 2015; Owens & Woolgar, 2018), except from the wide relevance, positive psychology interventions appear to be also inclusive of more balanced approaches of traditional remedial processes and outcomes.
As for Greek data, positive psychology seems as a newly-studied field, as the relevant literature is growing during the past decade (Malikiosi-Loizos, 2020), mostly due to the translation and usage of different psychometric tools, regarding hope, forgiveness, resilience and other strengths (Benetou, 2014; Labropoulou & Hatzichristou, 2011; Leontopoulou, 2011; Moustaki & Stalikas, 2011a, 2011b). Research data in Greece tend to highlight the importance of positive emotions and thoughts for the person’s mental health, relating the positive state of mind with higher levels of resilience, self-efficacy, creativity and better coping with distress (Galanakis et al., 2011; Galanakis & Stalikas, 2007; Karampas et al., 2016; Kounenou et al., 2022; Leontopoulou, 2013).
As positive psychology seems to be a field with increasing interest not only in Greece, but also worldwide, the present paper aims to highlight some perspectives on systemic psychology-based interventions. Focusing on the application of Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection Theory (IPARTheory), this paper specifically attempts to propose some practices, perceiving the contribution of positive psychology to the systemic applications of IPARTheory within different systems.
3. IPARTheory: Research Data and Clinical Applications
Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection Theory (IPARTheory) is an evidence-based theory of socialization and lifespan development, which aims to predict and explain major consequences and other correlates of interpersonal acceptance and rejection, worldwide (Rohner, 1986, 2004, 2021; Rohner & Rohner, 1980). This theory emerged about six decades ago, based on Ronald Rohner’s hypothesis that people are characterized by a continuous biological emotional need for a positive response by their parents and “important others”.
At the beginning, back in the 1960’s, the theory was named Parental Acceptance and Rejection Theory (PAR Theory), as the focus was mostly limited on the experience of parental acceptance and rejection in childhood, as well as the ways it extends into adulthood. During the last decades, after 1999, the theory had broadened, including more interpersonal relationships throughout the person’s lifespan (e.g. siblings, friends, intimate partners and teachers). This shift was even clearer, after the name-change, in 2014 (Rohner, 2021), to its current designation, Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection Theory (IPARTheory).
As IPARTheory is evidence-based, over all these years there is a really large amount of research data worldwide, studying the relationships and the interactions, through the experiences acceptance and rejection. The main results by multi-cultural research conclude that the experienced acceptance and rejection, mostly by the parents, is able to affect the individual’s psychological adjustment through the whole lifespan (Ali et al., 2019; Khaleque & Rohner, 2011; Khaleque et al., 2019; Rohner & Britner, 2002; Rohner et al., 2005; Rothenberg et al., 2022).
Additionally, recent research data show that parental rejection in childhood is linked with increased social anxiety (Giaouzi & Giovazolias, 2015; Giotsa, Kyriazos et al., 2018; Kyriazos & Giotsa, 2019), fear of intimacy (Rohner et al., 2019; Senese et al., 2020) and loneliness (Molaver, 2016; Rohner et al., 2020), as well as psychological adjustment difficulties in adulthood (Giotsa, 2023; Giotsa et al., 2016; Khaleque & Rohner, 2013; Rohner et al., 2020). At the moment, IPARTheory research is really wide and still expanding, studying children’s perceptions of the acceptance and rejection perceived by significant others, even from the age of 4 years old.
More specifically, Greece was the first country to apply the IPARTheory in preschool children (Giotsa & Kaminiotis, 2014), based on the belief that starting studying people’s perceptions of their feelings of acceptance and rejection in such a young age may give more time and space for prompt prevention. As a result, research data was published during the past decade, exploring the structure of the relevant tools in Greece (Giotsa & Kaminiotis, 2014; Giotsa & Kyriazos, 2019; Giotsa, Theodoropoulos et al., 2018) and Bulgaria (Koltcheva & Djalev, 2019). At the same time, in Greece, researchers focused on the identification of differences both, in terms of children’s gender and between children’s and parents’ perceptions (Giotsa & Kaminiotis, 2014; Giotsa & Kyriazos, 2019; Giotsa & Mitrogiorgou, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2024; Giotsa, Theodoropoulos et al., 2018; Theodoropoulos, 2017; Theodoropoulos & Giotsa, 2020), as well as the investigation of perceptions of children and parents in the modern Greek family and in family in crisis (Giotsa & Mitrogiorgou, 2017, 2018, 2019; Mitrogiorgou, 2020; Mitrogiorgou & Giotsa, 2022). Research data in Turkey studied poverty cases, concluding that perceived parental acceptance or rejection, as well as further characteristics of the familial environment, seem to affect the connection drawn between poverty and school readiness (Okur, 2015; Okur & Berument, 2016). Last, recent data from Portugal focused on the preschoolers’ social and emotional competence, showing that children who perceived more maternal rejection tended to have fewer social skills (Peixoto et al., 2023).
Based on an opinion stated by Eisler (2007), regarding the importance of the cooperation among researchers and therapists, in designing assessment and treatment tools, that are efficacious, relevant, and practical, for evidence-based mental health practices, Rigazio-DiGilio and Rohner (2015) proposed some clinical applications of the IPARTheory. By the adaptation of specific psychometric tools of IPARTheory, they aimed at a better understanding of the way that parental acceptance and rejection affects partners’ opinions on the form, function and sense for their relationship. As supported by Rigazio-DiGilio and Rohner (2015), when adapted for clinical use, the measures reported to be user-friendly and promoted effective therapeutic planning, discussion and outcomes. What is more, as also Donoghue concluded earlier (Donoghue, 2010), IPARTheory tools are interactive, contextual, emphasizing on the clients’ subjective realities, and able to explore patterns of acceptance and rejection perceptions in relationships with different significant others. Given the fact that the Theory includes tools even for the young age of 4 years, examining the subjective opinions of the children on the behavior of their significant others, there is the opportunity to intervene in the early stages of the person’s life, focusing also on prevention.
4. Systemic Applications of IPARTheory
The ecological model proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1994) suggests that every individual’s environment is composed of interconnected ecological systems, where all experiences—both positive and negative—play a significant role in shaping development and psychological adjustment. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2007) identified five such systems, with the microsystem being the most immediate and influential on an individual’s development. This microsystem encompasses family, school, work, religious institutions, neighborhood, and peers.
As a systemic approach emphasizes, to fully understand a person’s way of living and psychological well-being, it is essential to consider the broader environmental factors that influence their life (Bateson, 1972). This perspective is further reinforced by multicultural research based on the ecocultural framework, developed by Berry (1976, 2001) and later refined by Georgas (1988, 1993). This framework aims to understand the complex relationships between ecological and sociopolitical elements of culture and psychological variables at a national level. Subsequent research (Georgas, 1991; Georgas et al., 2006; Georgas & Mylonas, 2006; Georgas et al., 2004; Giotsa, 2003; Mylonas et al., 2015) has shown that ecosocial indices—such as economy, education, and religion—are crucial in explaining psychological differences across countries. These findings highlight the importance of considering cultural variables when interpreting psychological variations across different cultures. A framework linking cultural zones to psychological variables can provide valuable insights into cross-cultural differences (Georgas et al., 2004).
As the IPARTheory has evolved over the years, new psychometric tools have emerged that address various aspects of a person’s interaction with others across different countries and cultures. Notably, IPARTheory (Rohner, 2021) shares notable similarities with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model and the ecocultural framework proposed by Georgas et al. (2004). In addition to assessing parental acceptance and rejection, IPARTheory now allows for the assessment of acceptance and rejection within other important relationships, such as those with siblings, grandparents, teachers, intimate partners, and close friends. Furthermore, IPARTheory examines the dynamics of both sides’ perceptions within relationships, providing tools that can be completed not only by individuals but also by their significant others within the various ecological systems they inhabit.
In focusing on the family, the systemic approach views the family as a whole, which is more than the sum of its parts (Minuchin, 1974; Von Bertalanffy, 1968, 1972). Bowen (1978) defines the family as both a relationship and an emotional system, where the members influence and are influenced by one another at various levels (individual, dyadic, systemic, and intergenerational). Therefore, a change in one part of the family system will inevitably affect the whole system.
Bowen’s (1961, 1966, 1978) family systems theory has long been a significant framework in family therapy, offering valuable insights into how family members interact and affect one another. Over time, Bowen’s approach has become more culturally inclusive and diverse, especially when combined with other systemic frameworks (Erdem & Safi, 2018; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). For example, counselors in Greece have used Bowen’s transgenerational approach to understand and address dysfunctional family patterns passed down through generations (Bassioti et al., 2014; Giotsa, 2015; Giotsa et al., 2011; Katsioti et al., 2014). The focus of these interventions was on experiential learning, particularly addressing the differentiation of self from family emotional intensity, the dynamics of family triangles (where two members enlist a third to reduce conflict), and the transmission of emotional patterns across generations.
In line with Bowen’s family systems theory, IPARTheory and the psychometric tools it provides can support therapists in transitioning from a linear to a circular perspective in family therapy. Rather than focusing solely on specific events or explanations, the systemic approach highlights the relational dynamics and patterns that emerge among family members. Kelledy and Lyons (2019) emphasize that circular causality is a useful framework for systemic therapists, particularly in couple and family therapy, to explore the interdependent relationships and patterns that shape family dynamics.
This systemic approach allows IPARTheory to extend its reach across different levels of family relationships. Psychometric tools can be distributed to various family members, whether along horizontal axes (e.g., relationships between siblings, parents, and partners) or vertical axes (e.g., relationships spanning generations, such as grandparents, parents, and children). By considering multiple levels of family interaction—individual (e.g., psychological adjustment), dyadic (e.g., parent-child, siblings, partners), systemic (e.g., control dynamics between parents and children), and intergenerational (e.g., emotional dynamics across generations)—IPARTheory offers a comprehensive and systemic approach to understanding the complex web of interactions within family systems.
By better aligning IPARTheory with the broader systems approach, we can deepen our understanding of family dynamics and the impact of ecological systems on individuals’ development and psychological well-being. This broader lens helps researchers and therapists understand the multifaceted nature of human development and provides tools for more holistic interventions.
5. Cultural Applicability of IPARTheory in Systemic
Interventions
IPARTheory was explicitly developed with cultural universality in mind. Its foundation is based on decades of cross-cultural research conducted in over 60 countries, consistently showing that key dimensions of interpersonal acceptance and rejection—such as warmth, hostility, neglect, and undifferentiated rejection—are experienced and interpreted in remarkably similar ways across diverse cultural settings. This global applicability forms a strong empirical base for using the theory in culturally varied therapeutic contexts.
In addition to its theoretical foundation, IPARTheory offers psychometric tools that are both adaptable and culturally sensitive. These tools have been successfully translated, validated, and applied across a wide range of cultural environments, demonstrating strong cross-cultural reliability. Their flexibility makes them especially suitable for integration into systemic therapy, which itself emphasizes responsiveness to the unique values, structures, and dynamics of each family system.
However, despite IPARTheory’s cross-cultural strengths, the implementation of systemic interventions must always be guided by cultural humility and contextual sensitivity. While the theory provides a robust and empirically grounded framework, clinicians should tailor its application to align with culturally specific norms, family roles, and communication patterns. Therapists must actively engage clients in shaping the assessment and intervention process, ensuring that tools and interpretations resonate with their lived experiences.
In conclusion, although no theoretical framework can claim universal applicability, the cultural inclusivity and empirical depth of IPARTheory—when combined with the systemic approach’s inherent adaptability—make it a highly promising model for use in diverse cultural contexts. To further refine its global relevance, ongoing research is needed to explore culturally specific applications and adaptations in both clinical and research settings.
6. The Contribution of Positive Psychology in Systemic Clinical Practice
Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009: p. 467) define Positive Psychology Interventions as “treatment methods or intentional activities aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviors, or positive cognitions”. Nevertheless, as Owens and Waters (2020) state, it is not only about promoting positive processes and outcomes, but also about decreasing or preventing challenges, deficits, or disorders.
Based on the individual’s mental wellbeing, positive psychology approach suggests that authentic happiness has three basic dimensions, the pleasant life, the engaged life and the meaningful life (Seligman, 2002). According to Duckworth et al. (2005), the first domain, the pleasant life, focuses on positive emotion about the past, present, and future, aiming at maximizing positive emotions and minimizing pain and negative emotion. The second domain, the engaged life, focuses on using positive individual traits, strengths and talents, leading to more engagement, absorption, and flow. The third domain, the meaningful life, derives from the sense of belonging to and serving something larger than oneself, leading to the feeling of having a meaning in life. For example, a therapist might encourage the client to engage in a “gratitude journaling” exercise, where the client writes down three things they are grateful for each day. Over time, this simple act can shift the client’s perspective, leading to increased positive emotions and a decrease in rumination about past regrets.
Lasting fulfillment, built through the aforementioned dimensions, is the main goal of the authentic happiness (Seligman, 2002). Nevertheless, several researchers over the years tend to conclude that some more dimensions have to be added to these three core dimensions. As Slade (2010) states, Jayawickreme and colleagues (2008, cited in Slade, 2010: p. 5) suggest that the fourth dimension is the achieving life, which is a life dedicated to achieving for the sake of achievement. On the other hand, Sirgy and Wu (2009) state that the fourth dimension is the balanced life, as balance contributes to subjective well-being, while people may experience limited satisfaction just from a single life domain.
Some researchers have focused on the efficacy of positive psychology interventions in psychotherapy and the therapeutic value of positive emotions in generating change (Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008). Based on this efficacy, on the dimensions of authentic happiness and on the positive psychology coaching (Govindji & Linley, 2007; Grant & Cavanagh, 2007; Kauffman et al., 2010; Passmore & Oades, 2014), we attempt to sum up some practices adaptable in the field of the systemic approach.
In therapy, we could talk about short-term and sustainable wellbeing, as referred also by Passmore and Oades (2014), regarding positive psychology coaching approaches. Sustainable wellbeing is mostly managed using evidence based approaches, while it may be considered as the main goal in therapy, enabling the individual to act in an on-going manner, even after the therapy or coaching sessions have been completed.
Starting working with a client in the systemic approach, in combination with the first domain proposed in positive psychology, the pleasant life (Duckworth et al., 2005; Seligman, 2002; Sirgy & Wu, 2009; Slade, 2010), the therapist could focus on the client’s narratives, trying to identify negative mental representations and to focus on positive ones (White & Epston, 1990). The narrative therapy constitutes a useful method in this case, as it is based on the idea that everyone has multiple narratives or stories about life, and by exploring these narratives, the person may focus on the positive ones or proceed to reframing, creating positive changes. In these ways, the clients are able to feel in control over their lives, to recognize their strengths, and create hopeful narratives that support their well-being and growth (Drewery & Winslade, 1997; Giotsa, 2014). For example, a therapist who works with a client dealing with anxiety from past trauma can focus on how changing the way he views his past helps him feel better. Initially, the client saw himself as a victim, which made their anxiety worse. Through narrative therapy, he reframed his story, starting to see himself as a survivor rather than a victim. This technique could help him feel more in control of his emotions and develop a more hopeful outlook on the future, significantly improving his emotional well-being.
Taking into account the different systems and the interactions of the client with the important others, the therapist might work with the client on how mental representations and constructions have been built in the past, as well as the way they may influence the client’s life at the present. Also, through the understanding of negative points of view, the client could be gradually guided by the therapist to positive reframing and change of view. The physical participation of important others in the procedure, when it is considered of great importance, could maximize the results.
In order to be able to go further towards the sustainable wellbeing, it is the second domain proposed in positive psychology, the engaged life (Duckworth et al., 2005; Seligman, 2002; Sirgy & Wu, 2009; Slade, 2010), that could be combined with the systemic approach. During this part, the identification of resources, talents and strengths by the client is under the focus of the therapist, so as the former to be able to start using strength-oriented language (e.g. by making a lexicon of human strengths), differentiating gradually the focus from pathology to strength (Harris et al., 2007). A strength-oriented point of view is helpful not only regarding the self-esteem and self-efficacy, but also for coping with difficulties. Assessing the strengths and relevant environmental factors may support the client to be able to view a problem in a more realistic perspective, avoiding the feelings of hopelessness.
We might say that sustainable wellbeing is managed, when the client is able to recognize the traits of the domain of meaningful life (Duckworth et al., 2005; Seligman, 2002; Sirgy & Wu, 2009; Slade, 2010) through therapy. Using positive reframing, focusing on positive emotions and experiences and recognizing and using the strengths are some basic strategies leading to the sense of meaning in life. Based on relevant strategies, while in parallel addressing forgiveness and spirituality, the individual may be able to develop the sense of belonging and interact on a whole new level with the important others (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1967).
Of course, except from intervention, some of the aforementioned points of view are also relevant to prevention. As Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2014) state, several researchers have concluded that there are human strengths, acting as buffers against mental illness and pain. They referred to some examples of strengths, such as courage, future mindedness, optimism, interpersonal skill, faith, work ethic, hope, honesty, perseverance, and the capacity for flow and insight, which, according to Seligman (2002), are built through psychotherapy. The task of prevention could be to enhance such strengths, especially in young people, so as to be able to deal with life crises, such as loss (Olders, 1989; Sandoval et al., 2009; Vella, 2007), economic crisis (Apostolopoulou, 2013; Giotsa, 2019; Giotsa & Mitrogiorgou, 2014) or the recent COVID-19 pandemic crisis (Giotsa, 2023; Shatri et al., 2021). Strength-focused counseling or couching sessions with specified goals and duration could take place, in the systemic field and on individual, dyadic, systemic and intergenerational level, using the interaction with others as the main subject.
7. Discussion
As IPARTheory’s research base expands and encompasses a broader range of areas, both researchers and clinicians are increasingly able to apply it in clinical practice (Rigazio-DiGilio & Rohner, 2015). The psychometric tools associated with IPARTheory are user-friendly and easy to interpret, making them particularly suitable for use in individual, couples, family, or group therapy. Additionally, the inclusion of self-referral psychometric tools and control scales allows therapists to gain a more complete understanding of both sides of an interpersonal relationship (e.g., parent and child), which enhances the utility of these tools within a systemic approach.
Positive psychology can contribute practical techniques to systemic psychotherapy, particularly through balancing positive and negative emotions. Traditional therapeutic methods often focus predominantly on negative experiences, whereas positive psychology highlights the positive aspects of life. The pursuit of authentic happiness, as outlined by Seligman (2002), centers on the fulfillment found in the dimensions of the pleasant life, the engaged life, and the meaningful life, all of which can support the therapeutic process in systemic psychotherapy. A key tenet of positive psychology is its emphasis on individual strengths; by assessing these strengths and considering environmental factors, individuals facing a crisis can develop a more realistic view of their problems. This perspective reduces feelings of hopelessness, facilitating more effective intervention.
In the context of prevention, positive psychology practices can also be applied to the systemic approach. Coaching techniques, which focus on building strengths, act as buffers against adversity. By identifying and empowering these strengths in coaching or therapy sessions, clients not only develop a better self-image but also cultivate valuable traits to help them navigate crises. The systemic approach allows therapists to work on multiple levels—individual, dyadic, systemic, and intergenerational.
However, further empirical research is needed to examine how IPARTheory’s tools can be adapted or supplemented in trauma-informed settings. Future studies could investigate the reliability of IPARTheory instruments in clinical populations with PTSD or mood disorders, and explore how systemic variables impact perceptions of interpersonal acceptance and rejection in these groups. Qualitative research could offer valuable insights into clients’ lived experiences with IPARTheory-based interventions, providing culturally and emotionally nuanced understandings of how these tools function in complex cases. Longitudinal studies may also shed light on how perceptions of acceptance evolve during therapy and how these shifts relate to healing and resilience.
In conclusion, while IPARTheory shows promise for use with trauma-affected populations, further research is essential to refine its application, ensure cultural and emotional sensitivity, and optimize its impact in systemic psychotherapy.
Psychology researchers have developed numerous reliable and valid ways to understand and measure mental health, as well as to promote healing. Following the positive psychology approach (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014), the next generation of scientists is expected to focus on enhancing the quality of life and helping individuals thrive. By integrating past methods with innovative approaches, as discussed in this paper, we anticipate fostering the development of traits that will help individuals and communities move beyond mere survival to true flourishing.
8. Conclusion
In summary, this paper highlights the complementary value of IPARTheory and positive psychology within systemic psychotherapy. IPARTheory offers reliable, valid, and user-friendly psychometric tools that are especially effective in providing a balanced understanding of interpersonal dynamics—particularly when used in dyadic assessments (e.g., parent and child). Its compatibility with the systemic approach allows clinicians to assess and intervene on multiple relational levels: individual, dyadic, systemic, and intergenerational.
At the same time, positive psychology brings a strengths-based framework to clinical practice. By emphasizing emotional balance, fulfillment, and the cultivation of individual strengths, it expands the therapeutic focus beyond problem-solving to also include personal growth, resilience, and flourishing. Positive psychology techniques have demonstrated utility not only in crisis intervention but also in preventive approaches such as coaching, reinforcing individuals’ capacities to navigate challenges with greater confidence and self-awareness.
Together, these frameworks encourage a more holistic understanding of mental health—integrating both scientific assessment and human potential. However, as this work is largely theoretical, further empirical validation is necessary. Future research should aim to investigate the integration of IPARTheory tools and positive psychology techniques in real clinical settings, examining their efficacy across diverse populations and presenting problems. Longitudinal studies could also explore how these approaches contribute to sustained mental well-being and systemic change over time.
Ultimately, by bridging theory and practice, and by combining robust assessment tools with an optimistic, strengths-based lens, clinicians and researchers may foster not only healing but also enduring human flourishing—helping individuals, families, and communities thrive.
In conclusion, while no single theory or method can be universally prescriptive, IPARTheory’s empirical depth and cultural inclusivity, when paired with the systemic approach’s adaptability, make it a promising and respectful model for use in diverse cultural contexts. Continued research into culturally specific applications and adaptations remains essential for refining its global relevance.