Exploring the Strategic Role of Human Resource Development in Enhancing Institutional Effectiveness in Ghanaian Universities: A Comparative Analysis of HR Practices and Their Impact on Administrative Capacity ()
1. Introduction
The landscape of higher education is undergoing profound transformations globally, influenced by globalisation, technological advancements, and evolving societal demands. Universities, as centres of knowledge creation and dissemination, are expected to fulfil pivotal roles in addressing these dynamics while upholding their core missions of teaching, research, and community engagement. In this context, strategic human resource development (HRD) has emerged as a critical mechanism for enhancing institutional capacity and ensuring adaptability in the face of these complexities.
Globally, higher education institutions are increasingly confronted with the need to demonstrate efficiency, effectiveness, and responsiveness to societal demands. According to the World Bank (2020), universities worldwide are contending with pressure to align their operations with the expectations of a competitive and interconnected world. This is particularly pertinent in developing countries where higher education institutions are instrumental in fostering national development and economic growth. Strategic HRD, encompassing leadership development, skills enhancement, and innovation, is recognised as a crucial factor in equipping universities to effectively address these challenges. Universities that invest in HRD are better positioned to foster innovation, support national development goals, and maintain relevance in the ever-evolving global landscape.
In Africa, institutions of higher education encounter additional challenges due to resource limitations, expanding student populations, and the necessity to align educational outcomes with labour market demands. In addition, Nkomo et al. (2020), African universities must prioritise strategic HRD to cultivate the administrative and academic capacity required to compete on a global scale. This entails fostering digital literacy, promoting leadership skills, and embracing innovation among the university personnel. Notwithstanding these recognised needs, the effective implementation of HRD strategies in Africa remains impeded by systemic challenges, including inadequate infrastructure and cultural resistance to change. The discrepancy between policy and practice in HRD further exacerbates these challenges, resulting in numerous African universities struggling to achieve institutional objectives.
Ghana’s higher education sector presents numerous regional challenges. In recent decades, the sector has undergone significant expansion driven by the increasing demand for tertiary education and efforts to align with global trends. However, this growth has not been accompanied by commensurate improvements in administrative capacities or strategic HRD practices. Asare et al. (2022) elucidate persistent barriers in Ghanaian universities, such as limited financial resources, outdated technological infrastructure, and a lack of comprehensive HRD policies. These barriers impede universities’ ability to operate efficiently and adapt to the rapidly evolving demands of a knowledge-based economy. Addressing these HRD deficiencies is essential for ensuring the long-term success and competitiveness of Ghanaian education institutions.
Although the significance of strategic HRD in higher education is widely acknowledged, its practical implementation and impact in the Ghanaian context remain insufficiently explored. Studies such as Osei-Bonsu (2021) examined cultural influences on HRD practices in Ghana. However, there is a paucity of research addressing the specific challenges and opportunities to develop administrative capacity in these institutions. This study aims to address this gap by investigating the current state of strategic HRD in Ghanaian universities, examining barriers to effective implementation, and identifying innovative approaches to enhancing administrative capacity. Specifically, this study aims to:
1) examine existing HRD practices in Ghanaian universities.
2) identify challenges and opportunities in implementing strategic HRD.
3) explore innovative approaches to building administrative capacity in the 21st century.
To achieve these objectives, this study employed a qualitative research design incorporating semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders from six public universities in Ghana. Additionally, a document analysis of institutional policies and reports provides contextual insights into the HRD environment at these universities. This methodological approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of the systemic and practical factors that influence HRD practices. By integrating stakeholder perspectives with policy analysis, this study offers a holistic examination of the HRD challenges and opportunities in Ghana.
This paper is structured into five distinct sections. Following this introduction, the literature review provides a comprehensive examination of the extant research on strategic HRD in higher education, with a particular emphasis on Africa and Ghana. The methodology section delineates the research design, data collection methods, and the analytical techniques employed in this study. The findings and discussion section presents the primary themes emerging from the analysis, contextualising them within the broader literature. Finally, the conclusions and recommendations summarise the key insights and propose actionable strategies for stakeholders in Ghanaian higher education.
This study contributes to the broader discourse on HRD by providing empirical insights into its implementation in a developing-country context. By focusing on the often-overlooked area of administrative capacity building, this study underscores the critical necessity for strategic HRD frameworks tailored to the unique challenges and opportunities facing Ghanaian universities. These frameworks should emphasise long-term planning, resource optimisation, and the integration of innovative practices such as mentorship programs and technology-based learning platforms. The findings aim to inform policy and practice and offer a roadmap for strengthening HRD practices to support institutional and national development objectives.
This study ultimately elucidates the transformative potential of strategic HRD) as a catalyst for enhancing the efficacy and competitiveness of higher education institutions in Ghana and beyond. By addressing systemic barriers and leveraging innovative strategies, Ghanaian universities can position themselves as regional leaders and serve as exemplars for other developing countries endeavouring to enhance their higher education systems. This study not only addresses a critical lacuna in the literature but also provides actionable insights for stakeholders seeking to affect meaningful changes in higher education.
2. Literature Review
This section presents a comprehensive review of strategic HRD and its role in enhancing institutional effectiveness, with particular emphasis on higher education institutions. The review is structured around five thematic areas: the conceptual evolution of HRD, its strategic role in universities, barriers to HRD implementation, innovative HRD strategies, and identification of research gaps. The focus is on synthesising existing literature, critically analysing methodologies, and establishing connections between the findings and the objectives of this study.
2.1. Conceptual Evolution of Human Resource Development
Human resource development has evolved from a functional concept of employee training to a strategic framework integral to organisational success. Early definitions such as those proposed by McLagan (1989) positioned HRD as encompassing training, career development, and organisational change to enhance performance. Contemporary interpretations, as delineated by Alagaraja (2023), expand HRD to align human capital with organisational strategy, emphasising adaptability, leadership, and innovation.
In the context of higher education, HRD assumes a broader role, supporting not only employee growth, but also the institutional mission of teaching, research, and community engagement. Bhasin and Parrey (2012) elucidate the critical role of HRD in enhancing service delivery and meeting stakeholder expectations in educational settings. This expanded perspective posits HRD as a dynamic process that is responsive to evolving organisational and societal demands.
2.2. Human Resource Development in Universities
Human resource development in universities is crucial for fostering a positive and productive work environment, driving institutional excellence, and supporting the overall mission of the university.
2.2.1. Strategic Role of Human Resource Development in Universities
The strategic integration of HRD in universities is increasingly being recognised as a fundamental component of institutional effectiveness. Universities operate in a complex environment that is influenced by globalisation, technological advancements, and evolving societal needs. Asare et al. (2022) asserted that HRD is essential for aligning staff competencies with institutional objectives, thereby enhancing adaptability and competitiveness.
African universities, including those in Ghana, have encountered distinct challenges underscoring the importance of strategic HRD. Nkomo et al. (2020) emphasise that leadership development, digital literacy, and change management are critical areas for these institutions. However, the alignment of HRD strategies with institutional goals remains inconsistent, reflecting a broader trend of disconnection between policy and practice (Osei-Bonsu, 2021).
2.2.2. Barriers to Human Resource Development Implementation in
African Universities
Notwithstanding its acknowledged significance, the implementation of strategic HRD in African universities has encountered numerous challenges. Resource limitations present a persistent obstacle, with constrained financial and infrastructure investments impeding HRD initiatives. Asare et al. (2022) identified inadequate funding as a primary barrier exacerbated by insufficient technological infrastructure and a dearth of specialised HRD expertise.
Cultural factors further complicate HRD implementation. Traditional hierarchical structures in many African institutions engender resistance to change, particularly among senior staff members. Osei-Bonsu (2021) critiques these cultural dynamics, noting that they impede efforts to institutionalise innovative HRD practices. This resistance is exacerbated by the absence of comprehensive HRD policies, which results in fragmented and underperforming systems.
The disparity between policy and practice is particularly evident in administrative capacity building. While faculty development often receives significant attention, the professional growth of the administrative staff is frequently neglected. This imbalance constrains the overall effectiveness of HRD initiatives and underscores the need for a more inclusive approach.
Innovative Strategies for HRD in Universities
Amid these challenges, several innovative HRD strategies have emerged as potential solutions. Mentorship programs have gained prominence, fostering a culture of collaboration and continuous learning. Adamu and Mohamad (2019) advocate for mentorship as a means to address skill gaps and support professional development. Such programs have demonstrated efficacy in creating sustainable networks of knowledge and expertise within institutions.
Technology-based learning represents another transformative approach. E-learning platforms and digital skill training enable institutions to overcome resource limitations while enhancing staff competencies. Owusu-Agyeman and Fourie-Malherbe (2022) highlight the effectiveness of these tools in facilitating self-paced, accessible learning opportunities. In addition, partnerships with private sector organisations and international agencies provide valuable resources and expertise, enabling universities to address capacity gaps.
Cross-functional collaboration and leadership development are critical components in innovative HRD strategies. These approaches emphasise the integration of formal training with informal learning, creating a holistic framework that supports organisational adaptability and resilience (Nkomo et al., 2020). This review identifies several critical gaps in the literature on HRD at Ghanaian universities.
First, there is limited longitudinal research that assesses the long-term impact of HRD initiatives on institutional performance. Such studies are crucial to understanding the sustainability and effectiveness of these programs. Second, while cultural barriers are well documented, practical strategies for overcoming these challenges remain underexplored. Addressing these barriers requires context-specific interventions tailored to Ghanaian higher education’s unique dynamics.
Furthermore, the emphasis on faculty development frequently overshadows the necessity for targeted administrative capacity-building. This imbalance indicates a potential avenue for research focused on designing and evaluating HRD programs that prioritise the administrative staff. The development of context-specific HRD models, informed by comparative analyses across African universities, represents another promising area for future research.
2.3. Linking Literature to Study Objectives
The literature reviewed underscores the critical role of strategic HRD in enhancing institutional effectiveness. This study aims to address the identified gaps by examining the current state of HRD practices in Ghanaian universities, exploring challenges and opportunities, and proposing innovative strategies for administrative capacity building. By focusing on the professional development of administrative staff, this research contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of HRD’s role of HRD in higher education, aligning with global trends and local needs.
In conclusion, while HRD has been widely acknowledged as a strategic imperative, its implementation in African universities requires a nuanced approach that considers resource constraints, cultural dynamics, and institutional priorities. The insights gained from this review provide a foundation for advancing HRD practices, ultimately supporting the broader mission of higher education in Ghana and beyond.
3. Methodology
The Methodology section provides a comprehensive account of the research design, sampling procedure, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and measures implemented to ensure replicability. It also acknowledges the limitations of the study and addresses the reviewers’ comments regarding sample size and selection criteria. This study employed a qualitative research design to examine strategic HRD practices in Ghanaian universities.
3.1. Research Design
A qualitative research design was adopted to investigate the nuanced and context-specific nature of HRD practices within Ghanaian higher education institutions. Creswell and Poth (2018) argued that qualitative methods are particularly suited for exploring complex phenomena, as they allow for an in-depth understanding of participants’ experiences and perspectives. An interpretive phenomenological framework guided this research, enabling a close examination of how stakeholders perceive and navigate HRD challenges and opportunities. This framework aligns with this study’s objective of uncovering the lived realities of HRD implementation in public universities.
3.2. Population and Sampling
The target population comprised the key stakeholders involved in HRD planning and implementation at public universities in Ghana. These included administrative officers, directors of human resources, departmental academic chairs, and university management team members. These participants were selected because they provided valuable insights into the strategic and operational dimensions of HRD.
A purposive sampling technique was employed to recruit participants with relevant knowledge and experience. The final sample consisted of 30 individuals, comprising six Human Resource Directors, 12 Senior Administrative Personnel, six Academic Heads of Departments, and six University Management Team Members. The selection of 30 participants was guided by two primary considerations. First, achieving data saturation was crucial; as outlined by Saunders et al. (2018), data saturation occurs when no new themes or insights emerge, making this a key determinant of sample adequacy in qualitative research. The diverse roles represented among the participants ensured that the study captured a broad range of perspectives, thus enriching the data. Second, the sample reflects the geographical and institutional diversity of Ghana’s public universities. Participants were drawn from six institutions across the southern, middle, and northern zones of the country with two universities selected from each zone. This approach provides a comprehensive view of HRD practice in various contexts. The names of the institutions were withheld and labelled A, B, C, D, E, and F (Table 1) to anonymises the responses from the participants.
The recruitment process adhered to a structured methodology to ensure the inclusion of participants with direct experience in HRD practice, thereby enhancing the validity of the study. Initially, human resource departments at the selected universities were contacted to identify potential participants. Subsequently, formal invitation letters were sent to shortlisted individuals to delineate the study’s objectives, ethical considerations, and the voluntary nature of participation. To further expand the participant pool, snowball sampling was used, enabling the initial respondents to recommend additional eligible individuals. This systematic and multifaceted recruitment strategy ensured the inclusion of diverse and knowledgeable participants, thus contributing to the depth and reliability of the study’s findings.
3.3. Data Collection and Analysis
Data collection for this study utilised semi-structured interviews, document analysis, and selected methodologies to ensure both depth and contextual richness in understanding HRD practices. Semi-structured interviews served as the primary data collection instrument, offering the flexibility to explore participants’ perspectives while ensuring that essential topics were addressed. An interview guide was meticulously developed, grounded in the study’s objectives, and informed by a comprehensive review of the relevant literature. The guide comprises questions aimed at eliciting insights into current HRD practices and their alignment with institutional goals, identifying challenges and barriers to the implementation of strategic HRD, and exploring innovative approaches to enhancing administrative capacity. This methodology enabled the collection of detailed context-specific data that were central to achieving the study’s research aims.
Interviews were conducted in English and had a duration of 20 to 30 minutes. All interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ consent and transcribed verbatim to ensure accuracy. Follow-up questions were used to elicit in-depth responses from participants, thereby enhancing the quality of the data. Institutional documents, including HRD policies, strategic plans, and annual reports, were collected and analysed to triangulate the findings from the interviews. These documents provide contextual insights into institutional frameworks and priorities that inform HRD practices.
The data analysis for this study was conducted using thematic analysis guided by Braun and Clarke’s (2021) six-step framework. This approach provides a systematic method for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns within the data. The process commenced with familiarisation, during which transcripts and institutional documents were perused multiple times to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the data. This was followed by the initial coding, where meaningful patterns and trends were identified and labelled. Related codes were subsequently grouped into overarching themes during the theme-development phase, capturing the central ideas emerging from the data. The themes were then reviewed for coherence and relevance to the research objectives, and their definitions were refined to reflect their essence accurately. Finally, the themes were organised into a cohesive narrative aligned with the study’s objectives, enabling a clear presentation of the findings.
NVivo 12 software was used to manage and code the data, ensuring a systematic and transparent analytical process. To enhance the validity and reliability of the findings, peer debriefing sessions were conducted to facilitate external input to the analytical process. Additionally, member checks were employed to confirm the accuracy and authenticity of the interpretations, with the participants reviewing and validating their responses.
Meticulous documentation was maintained throughout the research process to ensure replicability. A detailed interview guide, which was included as an appendix, delineated the questions and topics explored during the data collection. Comprehensive descriptions of the sampling and recruitment procedures were provided, offering clarity regarding the participant selection process. All transcripts, coding matrices, and analytical memos were securely archived to create an accessible record of the data analysis process. Finally, the transparent reporting of the data analysis steps ensures that other researchers can replicate the study or adapt its methodology to different contexts. These measures collectively contribute to the robustness and replicability of this research.
3.4. Limitations and Mitigation Strategies
This study’s focus on public universities limits the generalisability of the findings to private institutions. To address this limitation, the Discussion section includes considerations on how the findings might apply to private universities. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported data in interviews introduces potential for response bias. This was mitigated by triangulating interview data with institutional documents and conducting member checks to verify the accuracy of participants’ responses. The researcher’s prior experience in Ghanaian higher education poses a potential source of bias. Reflexivity was maintained through the use of a reflective journal that documented assumptions and their influence on data interpretation (Berger, 2015).
4. Findings and Discussion
This section presents the findings of the study and is organised thematically to align it with the research objectives. The data were supplemented with visual aids, including tables and graphs, to enhance clarity. Key findings are contextualised within the existing literature, and their implications for strategic HRD in Ghanaian universities are discussed. These limitations are also acknowledged to provide a balanced interpretation of the results.
4.1. Current State of HRD Practices
The analysis of HRD practices in the sampled universities revealed a complex landscape characterised by diversity and varying levels of implementation. While there was a universal recognition of HRD’s importance of HRD across all institutions, the actual execution of these practices demonstrated considerable heterogeneity (Table 1). Some universities exhibited highly sophisticated and strategically aligned HRD systems, integrating them seamlessly into their overall organisational goals and culture. These institutions typically had well-defined policies, structured training programs, and clear career development pathways for their staff. Conversely, other universities demonstrated more rudimentary approaches to HRD, with less formalised structures and ad hoc implementation of development initiatives.
Variability in HRD practices has been observed in several key areas, including training and development programs, performance management systems, succession planning, and the utilisation of technology in HRD processes. Table 1 summarises these findings and illustrates the specific differences observed across the sampled universities. These disparities may be attributed to factors such as institutional size, available resources, leadership priorities, and overall maturity of the HRD function within each university. The analysis suggests that while there is a general trend towards recognising the value of HRD in higher education institutions, there remains a significant scope for improvement and standardisation of best practices across the sector.
Table 1. Summary of the current HRD practices across the sampled universities.
HRD Practice |
University A |
University B |
University C |
University D |
University E |
University F |
Orientation for New Staff |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Regular Skills Workshops |
Occasional |
Yes |
Occasional |
Yes |
Occasional |
Occasional |
Leadership Development |
No |
Yes |
No |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
Performance Management |
Basic |
Comprehensive |
Basic |
Basic |
Comprehensive |
Basic |
Career Development |
No |
Yes |
No |
Yes |
No |
No |
Universities B and D exhibited more comprehensive Human Resource Development (HRD) approaches, particularly in leadership development and career advancement opportunities. Nevertheless, even within these institutions, the participants observed inconsistencies in their implementation. For instance, the Human Resources Director of University D stated:
“Our training programs are sometimes reactive rather than proactive. We respond to immediate needs instead of planning for the future.”
This observation aligns with that of Asare et al. (2022), who identified the lack of long-term HRD planning as a recurring issue in Ghanaian higher education. These findings also echo Osei-Bonsu’s (2021) critique of the gap between policy and practice in HRD implementation.
The absence of long-term HRD planning in Ghanaian higher education institutions presents a significant challenge to the sector’s growth and effectiveness. This issue, as highlighted by Asare et al. (2022), is not isolated, but rather a systemic problem that permeates various levels of academic administration. The lack of comprehensive forward-looking HRD strategies impedes institutions’ capacity to adapt to changing educational landscapes, technological advancements, and evolving student needs. Consequently, this deficiency may result in inadequate staff development, misalignment of skills with institutional objectives, and, ultimately, a compromise in the quality of education provided.
Furthermore, the discrepancy between HRD policies and their practical implementation, as critiqued by Osei-Bonsu (2021), exacerbates the challenges faced by Ghanaian education institutions. This disparity suggests that even when HRD policies are formulated, they often fail to translate into tangible outcomes. Such inconsistencies can result in inefficient resource allocation, unfulfilled professional development opportunities for staff, and a general lack of progress in enhancing the capabilities of the higher-education workforce. Addressing these issues requires a concerted effort to develop comprehensive long-term HRD plans and ensure their effective implementation through robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms.
4.2. Challenges in Implementing Strategic HRD
Participants identified multiple obstacles impeding the successful implementation of HRD initiatives, as illustrated in Figure 1. These barriers encompass a range of organisational, individual, and systemic factors that collectively hinder the effective execution of HRD strategies. A paucity of resources remains a primary obstacle, with insufficient funding consistently impeding comprehensive HRD initiatives. This finding aligns with Asare et al.’s (2022) report, which indicated a similar funding deficit in Ghanaian higher education.
The second challenge is the technology infrastructure, where complete systems hinder the virtualisation of administration and e-learning programs.
“We want more online training”, says one of the senior administrators, “but our IT system doesn’t allow for it. It is distressing because we already know this is the future of HRD.”
This dilemma is aligned with the wider context of digitalisation in African universities, as Nkomo et al. (2020).
Resistance to change, particularly among senior staff, constitutes a significant cultural impediment. This resistance contradicts Osei-Bonsu’s (2021) critique of the impact of traditional hierarchies on HRD delivery at Ghanaian universities. Furthermore, the majority of universities lack adequately qualified HRD personnel, thus facing challenges in developing and implementing effective programs. This expertise deficit underscores the necessity of comprehensive capacity building across the HRD sector, an aspect that remains insufficiently documented in the literature on Ghanaian higher education.
These challenges demonstrate the interconnected nature of resource, technological, cultural, and expertise factors that impede strategic HRD in Ghanaian universities, with resource constraints representing the most significant limitation and HRD the least (Figure 1). Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that extends beyond the provision of additional funding or training.
Figure 1. Relative frequency with which these challenges were mentioned by participants.
Innovative Approaches to Capacity Building
Notwithstanding the identified challenges, several universities are making significant progress in implementing innovative approaches to enhance administrative capacity. The introduction of formal mentoring programs at two universities has demonstrated particular efficacy, with experienced administrators paired with junior staff members. One Head of the Department reported,
“The mentoring program has been life changing. It is not about skill sharing; it is about creating a culture of learning.”
This mentoring strategy corresponds to Adamu and Mohamad’s (2019) recommendations for implementing mentoring in HRD at African universities.
In the context of technology-based learning, one institution has pioneered a comprehensive e-learning suite for office workers. The platform offers programmable, self-paced training modules that are suitable for both rapid skill acquisition and organisations with limited budgets for instructor-led training.
Furthermore, several universities are developing capacity in collaboration with the private sector and international agencies. These cross-sectoral relationships provide access to skills and resources that are not typically available at the organisational level. Owusu-Agyeman and Fourie-Malherbe (2022) identified the value of external connections.
These innovative methods illustrate how Ghanaian universities can bypass resources and devise contextual solutions for HRD problems. However, they are not broadly used, which means that there is an opportunity for cross-institutional knowledge sharing and sharing of best practices.
4.3. Implications of Findings
These findings underscore the necessity for a comprehensive and tailored approach to HRD in Ghanaian higher education institutions. Standardised frameworks should be developed that account for the unique challenges and opportunities within the Ghanaian context, ensuring consistency across institutions, while allowing for flexibility to address specific institutional needs. These frameworks should encompass various aspects of HRD, including recruitment, training, performance management, and career development, aligned with the broader objectives of enhancing educational quality and institutional effectiveness.
Addressing resources and technological constraints is paramount for successful implementation of HRD practices. This necessitates a multifaceted approach encompassing strategic investments in physical and digital infrastructure, capacity building for personnel, and the development of sustainable funding models. Collaborations with private sector entities and international organisations can provide valuable resources, expertise, and technology transfer opportunities. Furthermore, fostering a culture of innovation and continuous learning within institutions is crucial to overcoming resistance to change and ensuring the long-term efficacy of HRD initiatives. This cultural transformation should be driven by leadership commitment, incentive structures that reward innovation, and the establishment of platforms for knowledge sharing and collaborative problem solving among staff members.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
This study examines strategic HRD practices in Ghanaian universities and elucidates their role in enhancing administrative capacity. The findings reveal variability in HRD practices, significant implementation challenges such as resource constraints, technological barriers, and cultural resistance, and promising innovative approaches, including mentorship programs, technology-based learning, and cross-sectoral partnerships. These insights underscore the necessity of strategic context-specific HRD frameworks aligned with institutional and national objectives. This study emphasises the importance of developing comprehensive HRD plans, investing in technological infrastructure, fostering a culture of learning, and leveraging partnerships to overcome challenges. It provides actionable recommendations for university administrators and policymakers and offers frameworks for sustainable HRD practices.
This research contributes to the broader understanding of HRD in developing countries by focusing on administrative staff and addressing systemic barriers to capacity-building. It advocates integrated national strategies, robust funding mechanisms, and collaborative efforts to enhance HRD’s impact of HRD on higher education. The proposed framework positions Ghanaian universities as potential exemplars for strengthening HRD in other developing contexts.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
This study focuses exclusively on public universities, limiting the generalisability of its findings to private institutions, which may operate under different HRD dynamics. Additionally, reliance on self-reported data introduces potential response bias, despite mitigation efforts such as document analysis and member checks. The qualitative approach, while offering depth, lacks the statistical generalisability of quantitative methods.
Future research should include private universities to provide a comprehensive understanding of the HRD practices across diverse institutional types. Comparative studies of public and private universities have elucidated unique challenges and opportunities. Longitudinal research is recommended to assess the long-term impact and sustainability of HRD initiatives on institutional effectiveness.
The exploration of mixed-method approaches could offer more nuanced insights by combining quantitative outcome measurements with qualitative perspectives. Further studies should also investigate the influence of external factors, such as government policies and international collaborations, on HRD practices. These efforts will contribute to the development of inclusive, impactful HRD frameworks suited to various educational contexts.