Examining the Effect Compensation Package, Professional Development, Work Stress, School Leadership, and Organizational Support on Female Teacher Job Satisfaction in Public Schools of Muscat Oman ()
1. Introduction
Job satisfaction is a crucial factor in determining the overall well-being and performance of individuals in the workplace. Among various professions, the job satisfaction of teachers holds particular significance, as it directly impacts the quality of education and student outcomes. This paper aims to explore the topic of teacher’s job satisfaction in Oman, a country located in the Arabian Peninsula. By examining existing literature and studies conducted in Oman, we will gain insights into the factors influencing teacher’s job satisfaction and the potential implications for the education system. Teachers play a crucial role in the education sector of any country irrespective of the country level of development. However, their effectiveness depends on their contribution. However, for them to offer effective service to education they should be satisfied with their job. The study by Al-Musawi (2014) explores the factors associated with job satisfaction among teachers in Oman. It identifies variables such as school leadership, salary, working conditions, and professional development opportunities as factors that significantly impact teachers’ job satisfaction.
According to Smith & Ingersoll (2017) it is indicated that, when teachers experience low levels of job satisfaction, it can have significant repercussions for both educators and students. Kyriacou (2019) revealed that, low levels of job satisfaction contribute to higher rates of teacher turnover, leading to instability in schools and disruptions in the learning process. Inadequate teacher satisfaction can result in a constant cycle of hiring and training new teachers, which can negatively impact the continuity and effectiveness of education.
Kyriacou’s book chapter provides insights into the challenges associated with teacher stress, which is closely related to job satisfaction. Inadequate teacher satisfaction can contribute to high levels of stress among educators, leading to burnout, decreased motivation, and diminished instructional quality. These factors can hinder teachers’ ability to effectively engage with students, resulting in reduced learning outcomes (Kyriacou, 2019). In Oman, teachers with marketable skills are likely to leave the teaching profession, which has led many to believe that public schools are populated by low-skilled teacher (Al Shabibi Sulaiman & Silvennoinen, 2018). Many studies in Oman have shown that Omani teachers tend to leave their jobs due to the high workload and lack of appreciation. The majority of optional retired teachers were female who had left before 20 years of service. They preferred to stay at home to take care of the house and family. Thus, it has become evident worldwide and worrying that teachers when feeling uncomfortable in the school environment think to either look for a better environment of quit teaching for good position. It is, therefore, both from a policy perspective as well as from an academic research perspective, important and relevant to investigate the determinants of job satisfaction, since job satisfaction is a determinant and leading indicator for better education outcomes of the learners. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyse the effect of compensation package, professional development, work stress, school leadership, and organizational support on female teachers’ job satisfaction in public schools of Oman.
2. Literature Review
This section covers the review of the literature on specific factors affecting job satisfaction of teachers. The factors related to job satisfaction are compensation package, professional development, work stress, school leadership, and organizational support.
The effect of compensation packages on job satisfaction among female teachers has been a topic of research interest. The relationship between compensation packages and job satisfaction of employees is a well-studied topic in the field of organizational psychology and human resource management. Research suggests that compensation can have a significant impact on job satisfaction (Pouliakas & Theodossiou, 2010). It was established in several studies that job related factors such as pay, hours of work, promotion opportunities; job security influences job satisfaction; whether the job involves difficulty, boredom or risk (Skalli, Theodossiou, & Vasileiou, 2008). The determining factors of job satisfaction when looked at critically one can conclude that the end result for a worker was pay and benefits. There was a correlation between compensation/reward and workers’ job satisfaction (Nelson, 2008).
As viewed by Armstrong & Murlis (2007) that reward was a means through which various workers’ needs were satisfied. Therefore, unsatisfied workers normally reduce workplace morale and lower productivity (Garrett, 1993). Job satisfaction could be enhanced by increasing autonomy, stress reduction and above all incentives in a compensation package (Whitt, 2006). Therefore, higher compensation has been found to positively influence job satisfaction among teachers, including female teachers.
The effect of professional development on female teachers’ job satisfaction, school leaders need to take many sorts of initiatives to attract and retain the teachers. Several studies have examined the relationship between training and job satisfaction (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Costen & Salazar, 2011). According to these studies, training was one of the main influencers on employees’ job satisfaction. In other words, organizations that engaged their employees with training programs were enhancing the employee’s emotional attachment to the organization, which would lead them to remain in their organization (Costen & Salazar, 2011).
Most studies relating professional development with job satisfaction find a positive impact of professional development on job satisfaction (Baluyos, Rivera, & Baluyos, 2019). However, it is investigated perceptions towards professional development in a very specific setting and found no significant relationship between teacher job satisfaction and their perceptions towards professional development (Baluyos, Rivera, & Baluyos, 2019). Professional development programs have a positive impact on teachers’ job satisfaction as they enhance their knowledge, skills, and professional growth. Some of the professional development activities for teachers include attending (online or in person) courses or seminars, reading professional literature, attending education conferences or workshops, peer and/or self-observation and coaching, participation in a network of teachers, observation visits to and exchanges with other schools, attending a formal qualification program, etc. (Avalos, 2011).
The effect work stress on female teachers’ job satisfaction, teacher work stress has led many teachers to become dissatisfied and as a result quit their job. Therefore, certain job stress reduction activities ought to be applied to increase teacher job satisfaction. Some of these initiatives are lessening teacher workload, eliminating students’ misbehavior, increasing leadership support, providing competitive salaries and incentives, and developing teachers’ self-efficacy. Several studies tried to determine the link between stress and job satisfaction. Stress leads to aggression and low job satisfaction when it functions as a negative factor. Job satisfaction may protect workers from stressors. Satisfaction is a regulating factor for stress. Teacher turnover intention is a worldwide growing problem that often leads to high cost of replacing teachers when they actually leave their jobs (Aldridge & Frazer, 2016; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016).
Job satisfaction plays a significant role in an individual’s desire to quit or remain committed to a job (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016). As a multifaceted construct, job satisfaction has its root in the work of Herzberg (1965), but has also attracted the attention of numerous other researchers (Aldridge & Fraser, 2016). Stressed teachers are more likely to quit their job than those who are not stressed. This therefore indicates that both of job stress and job satisfaction are related. Several studies revealed that high levels of work stress were associated with low levels of job satisfaction.
Smartha, Begum, & Lokesha (2001) analyzed the influence of various factors leading to job stress and job satisfaction like advancement in technology, management information system and Information Technology. Due to these factors, the performance of the employees was being affected. Villanueva & Djurkovic (2009) discussed the relationship between the occupational stresses of employees in small and medium enterprises and their intention to leave the organization. There were different factors that caused stress among the private and public banks employees such as overload, role authority, role conflict, and lack of senior level support contributed more to the occupational stress. Timing was the main factor because there was unlimited off time. Muhammad (2009) described the work dimension factors comprising pay, work stress, co-workers, promotion, work itself, and supervision. He concluded that secondary school teachers in Taiwan were generally satisfied with their job. Graduate students were more satisfied than non-graduate students.
The effects of school leadership on female teachers’ job satisfaction, many studies were conducted to examine the relationship between leadership and job satisfaction. It could be deduced from these studies that the leadership styles had a crucial impact on job satisfaction. The compatibility level of leader and workers was one of the most essential factors on job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. A study which was done by Rad & Yarmohammadian (2006) proved this claim. According to the study, a leader who had participative leadership feature failed to improve the company. The company stayed in the same point for a long time and could not show any headway. Furthermore, it was revealed that such kind of leadership behaviour decreased the job satisfaction, increased worker turnover, and shortened the range of burnout. Corresponding with this, the managers’ supportive behavior on labour and clearness in communication affected performance of workers in a positive way. The companies which had leader managers of such as characteristics had an improvement on job satisfaction. Workers wanted their managers to be the leader ones.
The job dissatisfaction appeared when there was a gap between the workers’ expectation of leadership features and the ones manager had (Elpers & Westheus, 2008). The job satisfaction level increased when the gap between the workers’ expectation of leadership characteristics and the ones manager declined. Tengilimoğlu & Yiğit (2005) pointed out that when the leadership styles which workers expected from the managers and the managers exhibited became closer to each other, it was observed that the job satisfaction level became higher and the leadership styles that affected job satisfaction were respectively: participative, instrumental, achievement-oriented, and supportive leadership. Managers’ leadership behaviors which they exhibited within an organization enabled the existence of clear communication between leaders and workers. This situation resulted in getting rid of job stress within the organization of workers and supplying an organizational which helped to promote performance of employee. As a consequence, job pleasure of workers increased and workers’ turnover level decreased (Kim & Brymer, 2011). However, on the case that the workers were not contended with their leaders, job dissatisfaction appeared and their organizational relationship decreased. Thus, in such cases the worker turnover increased, burnout level rose and behavior such as sabotage were noticed (Aşık, 2010).
The effect of organizational support on female teachers’ job satisfaction, to create an adequate working condition, teacher job satisfiers require close attention to reach maximum retention and well-being of the teachers. Teacher contentment and satisfaction can be achieved through full school support in getting rid of any sort of school stressors and burnout. Armstrong-Stassen (1998) explained that individuals’ behavior was influenced by their opinion about fundamental processes that constituted their organization and organization support was among them. Few scholars revealed a strong linkage between organizational support and job satisfaction (Cropanzano, Howes, Grandey, & Toth, 1997). In a longitudinal study conducted by Armstrong-Stassen (1998), it was observed that managers who enjoyed high levels of organizational support reported elevated levels of job satisfaction as compared to managers who supposed to enjoy lower organizational support. The potential description of this outcome was that organizational support could enrich individuals’ trust and beliefs that their employer identified and recompensed their struggles to accomplish superior performance (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Research suggested that organizational support started a social exchange process where individuals felt liable to support the organization in accomplishing its goals which led to greater rewards. When employees were associated positively with their job and organization, this strengthened the association between them and within the realms of social exchange theory (Biswas & Bhatnagar, 2013). As a result, individuals reciprocated organizational support through numerous ways and were more satisfied with their jobs.
3. Conceptual Framework
Based on the literature, the conceptual framework of this study is presented in Figure 1. The dependent variable is job satisfaction. And, the independent variables are compensation package, professional development, work stress, school leadership, and organizational support.
Compensation packages
A compensation package refers to the combination of salary, benefits, bonuses, and other incentives that an organization offers to its employees as part of their overall remuneration (Armstrong & Taylor, 2017). Some of these packages include salary, benefits, bonuses, stock options and equity and perquisites.
Professional development
Professional development according to Clarke (2011) refers to the process of acquiring and enhancing skills, knowledge, and competencies to improve one’s professional performance and career growth. It involves activities such as training programs, workshops, continuing education, conferences, mentorship, and self-directed learning (Darling-Hammond, Hyler, & Gardner, 2017).
Work stress
Work stress in the context of teachers refers to the physical, emotional, and psychological strain experienced by educators due to various job-related factors (Kyriacou, 2001). Teaching can be demanding, with multiple responsibilities and pressures, leading to stress that can impact their well-being and job satisfaction.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
School leadership
School leadership plays a crucial role in shaping teacher job satisfaction. Effective leadership practices can create a positive work environment, support teachers’ professional growth, and foster a sense of empowerment and job satisfaction (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004).
Organizational support
Organizational support refers to the resources, policies, and practices provided by an educational institution to support and meet the needs of its teachers (Lai & Chen, 2019). It plays a significant role in influencing teacher job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction of teachers refers to the positive emotional state or attitude that teachers experience towards their work (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974). It reflects the degree of fulfillment, contentment, and happiness derived from various aspects of their teaching profession.
4. Methodology
The population of this study constituted of female teachers who were 6740; these were female teachers in Muscat province within public schools of Oman who participate in this research study. Following the Slovin method, n = N/(1 + Ne2), the sample size for this study was determined 378 of female teachers from 97 public schools in Muscat. Questionnaires were used as main instrument of data collection. The questionnaires were circulated to the female teachers working in public schools only within Muscat. This study mainly used an online questionnaire as the questionnaires were sent to the teachers via their emails as a standardized survey instrument, then analyzed by using the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and using Smart-PLS and Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23.
The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to reveal the relationships and correlations between the retention of female teacher and the factors. The researcher used the following fit indices, 1) CMIN is the likelihood ratio chi-square test; 2) CFI (Comparative Fit Index) is a fit index that compares the saturated model with the independent model. CFI values can range from 0 to 1, values above 0.90 and close to 1 show good fit. CFI is in the group of fit indices based on independent models (Civelek et al., 2018); 3) GFI (Goodness-of-fit Indices) is a fit index which is used to assess the validity of the model; 4) RMSEA is a measure of fit that compares the mean differences of each expected degree of freedom that can occur in the population with each other; 5) TLI (Tucker–Lewis index) highly relies on the conventional cut-off values developed under normal-theory Maximum Likelihood (ML) with continuous data. Out of the 378 questionnaires that were sent 367 were received back and processed. Therefore, the findings of the study are based of 97% response.
5. Results
The results of this study are presented in Table 1 that showing how study variables are measured and scored individually in different model.
The Compensation Package, Professional Development and Work Stress latent variables are defined by six indicators for each one. The School Leadership and Job Satisfaction are defined by five indicators for each one. The Organizational Support and Teachers’ Retention are defined by three and six indicators respectively. These latent variables are tested to illustrate the measure adequacy of their indicators. The results, the CFA model indicates adequate fit to the data
Table 1. Model fitting analysis for primary and modified measurement models of study variables.
Measure |
Cut-off
for good fit |
Value |
Compensation Package |
Professional
Development |
Work Stress |
School Leadership |
Organizational Support |
Job Satisfaction |
Teachers’
Retention |
CMINDF |
CMINDF < 5 |
2.149 |
2.450 |
2.339 |
3.334 |
- |
2.601 |
2.446 |
RMSEA |
RMSEA < 0.08 |
0.056 |
0.063 |
0.060 |
0.080 |
- |
0.066 |
0.063 |
GFI |
GFI ≥ 0.90 |
0.977 |
0.976 |
0.977 |
0.98 |
1 |
0.992 |
0.983 |
NFI |
NFI ≥ 0.90 |
0.989 |
0.986 |
0.989 |
0.987 |
1 |
0.996 |
0.992 |
CFI |
CFI ≥ 0.90 |
0.994 |
0.992 |
0.994 |
0.991 |
1 |
0.998 |
0.995 |
TLI |
TLI ≥ 0.90 |
0.992 |
0.986 |
0.990 |
0.981 |
- |
0.992 |
0.991 |
collected based on the values of [NFI = 0.989], [CFI = 0.994], [TLI = 0.992] and [GFI = 0.977], which are greater than (0.90). The value of [RMSEA = 0.056] is less than (0.08) and [χ2/df ratio = 2.149] is less than (5). The results indicate that the model provides a very good fit to the data.
About the effect of (compensation package, professional development, work stress, school leadership, and organizational support) on female teacher job satisfaction in public schools of Oman. From the results it was established that compensation package had a significant positive impact on female teacher job satisfaction in public schools (β = 0.91; p-value < 0.001). The professional development was also found to have a significant positive impact on female teacher job satisfaction in public schools (β = 0.95; p-value < 0.001). School leadership has a significant positive impact on female teacher job satisfaction in public schools (β = 0.95; p-value < 0.001) and organizational support has a significant positive impact on female teacher job satisfaction in public school (β = 0.91; p-value < 0.001).
6. Conclusion and Discussion
Research findings suggest that competitive and equitable compensation packages positively influence teacher job satisfaction. Fair salary structures, benefits, incentives, and opportunities for growth and advancement contribute to higher levels of job satisfaction among teachers. On work stress, it was established that high levels of work stress negatively impact teacher job satisfaction. Excessive workload, time pressure, lack of resources, student behavior issues, and administrative demands can contribute to increased stress levels and decreased job satisfaction among teachers (Kyriacou, 2001; Montgomery & Rupp, 2005). On organizational support, it was established that adequate organizational support, including supportive leadership, professional development opportunities, resources, and a positive work environment, positively influences teacher job satisfaction. When teachers feel supported and valued by their institution, they tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Yoon et al., 2007).
On the factor of school leadership, it was established that effective school leadership practices significantly impact teacher job satisfaction. Supportive and transformative leadership, clear communication, collaborative decision-making, and a positive school culture contribute to higher levels of job satisfaction among teachers (Gurr & Day, 2014).
Compensation package, professional development, school leadership and organizational support have a significant large positive impact on female teacher job satisfaction in public schools. Therefore, female teacher job satisfaction and retention in public schools are better with higher (compensation package, professional development, school leadership, organizational support).
The impact of the five factors on female teacher job satisfaction in public schools is greater than any other latent variables that affect the retention of female teachers in public schools of Oman.
This may be due to the fact that job satisfaction is one of the most important factors for female teachers to stay in their jobs. Although this study has been unable to undertake the physiological factors that inform and influence this kind of trends among female teachers, it remains apparent that there is a higher likelihood of retaining more female teachers in public schools if their leadership afforded attention to factors that impact their levels of job satisfaction.
On the other hand, there was a significant minor negative impact of work stress on female teacher retention in public schools. There was also a significant large negative impact of work stress on female teacher job satisfaction in public schools and this is because of restricting teachers’ freedom and independence forces teachers to find alternative professions.
There was also a significant large positive impact of job satisfaction on female teacher retention in public schools. This result matches with the studies of Ryan et al. (2017), Halpin & Kieffer (2015) which showed that teaching stress is one of the causes of teacher attrition, the worry and fear of starting a job led teachers to end their careers, the stress experiences of teachers can result from their perception of the requirements and inability to meet these requirements. The result of this study goes along with the studies of Schaarschmidt & Fischer (1997) and Perie, Baker, & Bobbitt (1997), which associate the lack of commitment with the high stress that teachers are exposed to every day.
7. Contribution to Knowledge
The study on factors affecting job satisfaction of teachers contributes to knowledge in several ways:
Identification of influential factors: The study helps identify specific factors that significantly impact teachers’ job satisfaction. This contributes to a deeper understanding of the key determinants that influence teachers’ overall satisfaction in their profession.
Insight into teacher well-being: By examining factors related to job satisfaction, the study sheds light on teachers’ overall well-being and happiness in their work. It provides valuable insights into the factors that contribute to a positive work environment and support teachers’ professional growth and job satisfaction.
Guidance for policy and practice: Understanding the factors that affect teacher job satisfaction can guide policy and practice in educational institutions. The findings can inform the development of strategies and interventions aimed at improving teacher satisfaction, retention, and overall job performance.
Informing professional development programs: The study can inform the design and implementation of effective professional development programs for teachers. By identifying the factors that positively influence job satisfaction; the research can guide the content, structure, and delivery methods of professional development initiatives, thereby enhancing their impact on teachers’ satisfaction and professional growth.