Determining Dynamics and Factors Contributing to Victimize in the Rural Structure of Bangladesh ()
1. Background and Conceptuality of the Study
The people with marginal characteristics in the rural structure have been victimized in many forms and ways. Different factors and dynamics in the rural structure have influenced people to violate the legal code and social rules in terms of social solidarity and social expectations. Few people with various strengths and powers, as per the rural structure of Bangladesh, have committed criminal actions against general people and social institutions. A study has been conducted by Hasan and Khatun (2020) to unearth why the people of Bangladesh are involved in committing crimes and unethical activities. This study has focused on the reasons and grounds for violating the legal code of ethics and instructions. The people who have unlawful desires to capture the property and resources of others by showing anarchy and arrogance have committed criminal activities. The crime trend has made many illustrations to commit crimes and unlawful activities against persons, property, profession, social status, etc. The dynamics of rural structure have influenced the quality of life and livelihood patterns. In rural settings, the people have worked for each other but have committed crimes for their interests and purposes. The social understanding among the people does not work correctly when the people have been influenced by self-interest. Ahuja (1996) said that any country or society’s urban and rural structure doesn’t have a role in growing crime tendencies and criminal activities. It depends on the practices of rules to control crimes and criminal movements. Harkness (2020) argued that the law and order situation of any country, the tendency of the community people to obey the legal and social conventions, social functioning among the community people, and the scope of justice and correctional rehabilitations are influenced more to control the criminal activities and unlawful involvements.
On the other hand, people with marginal character have suffered to participate in the community-based decision-making process to express their opinions and views for modifying the community rules and regulations. The rural composition of Bangladesh has been operated mainly by those with social positions and power of control. Because of these propositions, people with bad intentions are not interested in following social guidelines and correlations. The disadvantaged person and group are bound to obey the ‘order’ declared by the influential people. Khatun and Islam (2019) mentioned that rural settings of Bangladesh are controlled by power, social position, amount of property, and professional position. This discrimination between marginalized and wealthy groups has caused differences and distances in the roles and contributions of upholding the change of society. The culture of discrimination promotes various contexts to violate the social codes against persons and groups. The tendency for crime has grown in the rural settings of Bangladesh in terms of dimension and process.
Criminal offenses like rape, murder, divorce, profound misunderstanding between/among neighbors, land disputes, family-based disputes and conflicts, crime against honor, teasing, destroying the income-generating sources, community unrest and chaotic events, and so on activities are happening in the rural settings of Bangladesh. The legal and social actions against criminal activities are not acted as per the demand and people’s interests. When the voice of the victimized person will not be raised loudly, the criminal movement of the offenders will be increased and uncontrolled. This tendency has been overseen in the rural structure of Bangladesh, and following this aspect, many criminal activities and offenses have been committed by offenders. These criminal activities hamper social activities and functions in rural settings. Victims in rural settings don’t get the proper recovery that government agencies and developmental institutions should take. Islam (2024) revealed that the factors of committing criminal activities against the person in the rural structure play a destructive role by which people are victimized. Considering the rural context of Bangladesh, people with backward social positions are traumatized by different criminals and persons who have illegal intentions.
2. Logical Frame of the Study
The present study has been led to know the dynamics and factors contributing to victimizing in the rural structure of Bangladesh. Why rural people are being victimized in rural settings has been asked. The people of the rural communities live under a stable rural structure where mutual collaboration and solidarity should be adequately practiced, considering its nature and functional characteristics. However, the rural people are being victimized in many ways and forms. At the same time, recidivism in rural settings has continued and hampered the daily life of ordinary people. The people with the strength of control have influenced the movement and voice of the general people in many ways. During the study, an in-depth investigation was conducted to reveal the dynamics and factors of committing crimes and unlawful activities by a few ill-motivated people. Based on the following frames, the present has been performed:
1) The dynamics behind criminal activities are traced to realize the surroundings and environmental factors that prove defendants who violate the codes against people. In the rural structure of Bangladesh, the dynamism of committing crimes and actions against people’s interests should have been revealed and published to take the required policy and services to resolve the problems of the affected people and to prevent further victimization.
2) The working dynamism of the rural structure produces different active factors that provoke the rural people to commit crimes and unlawful activities. The socialization process, daily correspondence among the rural people, need-based movements, position-based status and its execution, criminal desires of a few people who don’t care about the social and legal code of ethics, and social arrogance by the influential person against mass people have produced various factor-based situations for making the chaotic environment. By conducting the study, these factors and their influence on committing criminal activities have been understood and disclosed.
3) The key person in the rural structure plays a significant role in controlling the criminal movement of the offenders. In healing the criminal victimization of the rural structure, the key persons are influenced in many ways. Considering the power practice of the rural settings, key persons motivate the offenders to be corrected and compensated towards victims. At the same time, the key persons stand in their position and make their voices loud in favor of victims and their families. In the present study, the key role of the key persons in the rural structure controlling criminal victimization has been conceptualized and presented.
3. Concepts Used in the Study
The study has been designed to explore the dynamics and factors contributing to committing crimes and unlawful activities. Some concepts have been used with a unique meaning under the study, as follows.
3.1. Victim and Victimization
Victim and victimization are those types of concepts that are used to explain different outlooks. According to the United Nations (1985), a victim is a person or group who has been traumatized in many dimensions, such as physical, social, economic, and emotional suffering, and deprived of fundamental rights and demands. Under the study, the concept of victim indicates those persons who have been victimized by a person or group within the community frame. The person was considered a victim who has been hampered physically, financially, mentally, and livelihood-based sufferings committed by a person known as an offender as per law and social rules. Victimization is considered a process by which a person or group has been harmed or damaged their property, social and professional status, and honor. That process has undermined the environment for living with human dignity.
3.2. Dynamics and Factors
According to the present study, dynamics and factors are used as those ways and processes have been executed by an offender to damage the materials and non-material resources of a person who is called a victim and sufferer. The study purposively selected the victims, key informants, or stakeholders who faced post-victimization challenges. Victims’ rights and recovery, social support, and stakeholders’ response to heal the trauma have been understood by conducting the study.
4. Research Questions
The conducted study has been guided by the following questions to determine the victimization-related factors and dynamics:
1) What factors contribute to the cause of victimization in the rural structure?
2) How does the rural culture make interaction among members and influence them to commit crimes?
3) What are the in-depth correlations of rural settings that provoke victimization?
4) What actions can the concerned authority take to control victimization in rural settings?
5. Objectives of the Conducted Study
The study’s primary objective is to determine the dynamics and factors contributing to the cause of victimization in the rural structure of Bangladesh. The specific objectives are to:
Identify the dynamics and factors contributing to victimization in the rural structure;
Unearth the in-depth correlations among the factors relating to victimization;
Understand the society’s situations that influence to commit crimes;
Assess the society’s reactions regarding victimization-related factors according to victims;
Present the opinions of victims on how to control victimization and criminal offenses.
6. Research Design: Method and Techniques
The present study has been conducted following the qualitative approach. Qualitative intervention (Withrow, 2016) regarding the crime aspect focuses on the integral subjects of any person or group who has passed a critical stage and unlawful situations within the community life and is hampered by a person or a group called offenders. Under the qualitative approach, the victim as respondent was interviewed using the case study method (CSM). CSM has been selected as a method to reveal the actual scenario and events from the victims that influenced them to commit crimes. The livelihood patterns of the victims, relational factors, community-based resilience, socio-cultural practice, and culture of obedience toward people have been realized by the victims through the CSM. At the same time, key persons in the research area were interviewed using Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). The Key Persons in the research areas have played a key role in controlling the case of victimization. The Key Persons were interviewed to understand the functional gaps and structural needs to prevent the case of victimization. During the interview sessions, the surroundings of the victimized persons were observed and tried to gather the relevant components emphasizing the victim’s reintegration and survival. Ten victims were interviewed following the CSM using an Interview Checklist (IC).
On the other hand, six key informants were examined using the Key Interview Schedule (KIS). Both types of interviews were conducted using the face-to-face technique. Before the interview session, the goal of the present study was described to the respondents, which was to get consent. Madaripur, Gazipur, and Narsingdi were selected as research areas from rural structures where the respondents were interviewed. The victim and key persons as respondents were interviewed as follows (see Table 1).
Table 1. Nature of victimization and key persons.
Nature of Victims and Victimization |
Nature of Key Persons |
Land disputes Forceful teasing and dating Victim of theft |
Conjugal conflict Threat for harms Misunderstanding with neighbors Quarreling about not paying the borrowed money |
Local justice mediators (LJM) Locally influenced personalities (LIP) |
Elected personalities Reliable relatives Development activists and NGO workers |
Source: Developed by researcher.
Data analysis techniques (DAT) like verbatim quotation, contextualization, and framing of the contents with needed description were applied to present the collected data. Creswell (2009) acknowledged the techniques for displaying qualitative data and content. Goodey (2005) clarified that the in-depth reality of the victims and key informants has been explained as possible to apply the in-depth interventions from data collection to analysis. The victim has been identified following pseudonyms like A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. By contrast, the key informants were introduced using m, n, o, p, q, and r. The required methodical steps were used in the study to achieve the study objectives.
7. Reviewed the Relevant Literature
The victim context and reality have been studied by reviewing the related studies and research interventions. Realizing the Bangladesh context regarding the victims and the role of key stakeholders in the research areas have been assumed through a systematic review. Understanding the previous study and its findings with research grounds, the below study has been reviewed based on the objectives of the present study as follows:
A study has been led by Hoque and Zarif (2019) to explore traditional justice (Shalish) approaches for resolving different disputes and unlawful situations committed in rural communities of Bangladesh. The researchers have drawn a plan to pick up the functional interventions imposed by the platform of rural Shalish councils. This study has observed the functional progress during Shalish and bargaining to ensure the verdict and its execution strategies. The research mentioned that various criminal and civil disputes have been mitigated through rural dispute resolution intervention (RDRI) to create a peaceful character within the community. The study also noted that considering the characteristics of the committed disputes, the resolution committee has determined the ending window inviting all parties and relevant stakeholders. Knowing the functional mechanisms of the resolution system, 11 (eleven) resolution meetings have been observed through the Participatory Approach. At the same time, 46 (forty-six) stakeholders from different corners who engaged in the resolution system were interviewed, following a checklist and guidelines. Under the study, all phenomena regarding dispute resolution practiced in rural communities have been traced out, and the nature of disputes/victimizations have been listed methodically. Sylhet, Sunamgonj, and Chattogram were selected as research areas for the study.
The researchers (Hoque & Zarif, 2019) identified the nature of disputes resolved through a resolution system. The differentiation of the resolution system in terms of practice was noted in the study. Because the local resolution system is practiced as an informal and community-based dispute resolution approach. By conducting the resolution system, the contributors are not well-prepared and functionalized to run the activity, escaping all criticism and challenges. From dispute to resolution, the resolution conducting committee has to face local and organizational obstacles to provide an amicable solution and to protect all concerns. The following cases have been studied and observed by the conducted study (Hoque & Zarif, 2019) to understand the restorative justice approaches and used models:
Misunderstandings between neighbors that have been made due to their children Land-related disputes and conflict Un-noticed use of property Violence against Women (VaW) Distribution of family property after the death of the guardian Inter-village conflict for community-based issues Intra-household conflict among the mates of a house |
Dowry-related issues and torture against women Complaint against village mate due to non-ethical attitude and arrogant behavior Hampered the income-generating source Criticized about a young female of a family who was chosen for marriage Eaten and used others’ food and fruits without permission and consent |
The researchers have observed the above cases to oversee the practicing models and techniques of restorative justice to resolve the conflicts and disputes of the rural communities. By conducting the study, the researchers found some pertinent findings about the strength of restorative justice that influences the victim and accused person for an amicable solution. According to the study, the reported cases have been classified into two parts: civil and criminal. Based on the nature of disputes, the operational mechanisms determined by the restorative practitioners and stakeholders were presented to observe the process for a solution and end. As per the study report, the victim (applicant) has complained to the arbitration agency against the offender regarding the committed victimological issue and event. Considering and listening to the matters from the victim, the body of justice has called/noticed the accused person to come on a specific date with proper documents and family members. After hearing the harm and pains, the restorative justice panel has decided on a verdict or decision. In this process, the defendant was given the chance to explain why this victimization happened and what actions and contributions would be performed by the defendant. An important sentiment that restorative practitioners have promoted is to control the repetition of crime and misunderstandings. Collaborating between the victim and defendant has been re-made through contributions like paying compensation, saying sorry, repairing the damaged things, generating the income source, and promoting further relations.
Other important findings from reviewing the article are related to implementing restorative decisions to change the victim’s situations. From conflict to resolution, the people of the rural community have faced a ‘new reality’ to be reintegrated within the community frame. People with bad intentions and arrogant attitudes control the community frame. Shalish is considered a community-based justice approach, also known as restorative justice. As justice mediators, the stakeholders face different ‘social realities’ when implementing the verdict and decision to uphold the situation of the post-victimization of the applicant (victim). Considering the Bangladesh context, crime-prone people do not agree to obey the restorative verdict that the restorative mediators and other key stakeholders have decided. The reviewed study proposed some recommendations to enhance the applications of restorative justice in different names and types. One thing that the conducted research has argued is that rural people have been victimized by various compoundable crimes that are also known as non-serious crimes. Still, its impact and post-crime consequences on the victim’s life and relations are bigger and hamper the normal settings of life.
Another study was conducted by Mamun (2020) to explore the reasons and grounds for domestic violence against women in rural areas of Bangladesh. The rural context of Bangladesh has brought many perspectives and realities regarding domestic violence against women. The study argued that domestic violence against women in rural areas has turned into a ‘culture.’ Under the descriptive research design (DRD), the study has been invented on the question of violence committed against women on domestic grounds. The study mentioned that 41.41% of women were tortured by their own families, 70.71% by their husbands, and by their husband’s families tortured 72.27%. This scenario claims that violence against women on domestic grounds is increasing day by day due to many reasons and perspectives. Women in the marginalized domain are facing various unpleasant questions due to their survival and fundamental rights. The rural context is different from the urban context. This phenomenon produces many reasons and issues by which women have been tortured by their near and dear. The study noted that 44.34% of women had been victimized physically and mentally, oral words victimized 20.66%, and 17.34% were tortured mentally.
The reviewed study has invented the reasons for women’s victimization in the domestic domain in rural areas of Bangladesh. The study expressed that 18.39% of women were tortured due to dowry, 16.37% of women were harassed for not having the maintenance capacity, 25.00% were tortured for saying opinions in the decision-making process, and 8.6% of women were victimized to establish the own authority. The reviewed study mentioned various recommendations to address the domestic violence against women in the domestic platform in the rural areas of Bangladesh. The researcher has mentioned the following suggestions: establish secularism in the social structure, implement the approved laws and regulations regarding women properly, raise public awareness and consciousness, and change patriarchal attitudes towards women.
Writing published by Sikder (2016) under the title ‘Village Court: A Dilemma Within’ explains the village court (VC) with potentialities for repairing the community disputes involving all parties of criminal victimizations. The culture of VC is rural-centric, and the injustice and criminal victimizations within the community have been resolved locally in front of the community people. Another strength of the reviewed writing is the ability to search the scopes of VC, which promotes more active VC within the community settings for minimizing criminal victimizations and any types of local disputes resolved by the VC approach, gathering the community as a stakeholder. The reviewed study noted that the village court, as an agency of restorative justice, has to operate the justice for solving the occurred criminal victimizations. The authority and the level of involvement of VC have been determined by law. In some practical situations, the organizing committees of VC do not follow the mentioned rules and obligations. As a result, the confidence and trust among the community about VC have not achieved a good position and are incapable of presenting themselves as an unbiased institution.
The reviewed study clarified that the court system of Bangladesh is primarily urban-centric. The urban people will seek legal support from legal personalities and get legal prosecution easily using their network and capacity. On the other hand, the rural people don’t get the legal support and services quickly. The reviewed study mentioned that the government has passed two legal windows providing para-legal assistance within the community settings: The Village Court Act 2006 and The Local Government (Union Parishad) Act 2009. Based on these, rural communities’ justice system (RCJS) has been re-formed to provide legal support and minimize injustice and conflicts among community members.
The village Court in Bangladesh has performed the following activities: reporting a case, summoning, witness examining, getting the commitment from the offender not to commit the crime further, making judgments, determining compensation and facilities, follow-up by the offender, and support for friendly relationships. The revised study (Sikder, 2016) mentioned that:
Controlling the injustice and anti-social behavior in rural communities, the system of restorative justice shows a new dimension regarding repairing disputes. Through restorative justice, the stakeholders of criminal victimization come to a place to make a dialogue on how to repair taking the responsibilities of the offender(s) and assessing the needs of victim(s) by the community. This process has been done through the village court system. The village court has decided on the solution frame and supported reintegration within the community.
The reviewed study referred to the constitution of Bangladesh, which declared that every accused person has the right to get a speedy and public trial by an independent and impartial court. The poor and disadvantaged people of rural communities don’t have the scope to get legal assistance from the government procedure very quickly. Considering the situation, the rural people are suffering a lot for getting the judgment. By restorative justice, the compoundable case(s) may be repaired within the community settings involving the victim, offender, and community as guardians. According to the revised study, the practice of restorative justice in Bangladesh has been formally granted by the community people, and para-legal procedures focus on community solidarity. Restorative justice in Bangladesh has been continued with maturity for repairing the community injustice, conflicts, and disputes.
Islam (2024) conducted a study to overview the dynamics of rural crimes in South Asia from criminological grounds and tried to identify the factors that contribute to the cause of criminal victimization in rural communities. Minding the variation of livelihood patterns, the researcher has prepared the design to conduct the study with some pertinent objectives. The reviewed research endeavored to understand the reality of crime in South Asian countries and the existing factors that provoke people to commit criminal victimizations in the rural context. The study argued that there is a functional differentiation between urban and rural areas in terms of criminal victimization. The study has classified the committed crimes in the South Asian as follows (see Table 2).
Table 2. Types of victimization in Bangladesh.
Crimes against Property |
Crimes against a Person |
Crimes Relating to Morality and Social Order |
Cybercrimes |
Theft Burglary Robbery Land disputes Crime against income-generating source |
Homicide Assault Rape Murder Sexual harassment and violence Honor killing |
Human trafficking Smuggling Drug trafficking Substance offences |
Cyberbullying Hacking Dissemination of content against digital ethics and rules Cheating and digital harassment |
Source: Islam (2004).
By conducting the study, the nature of criminal victimization in South Asia has been identified mainly. The study showed that people of South Asia have been influenced to commit crimes for many reasons and grounds. The people of South Asia have faced the situation of ‘poverty.’ Due to this crisis and scarcity in daily life and expectations, people have violated the legal rules and social orders. Alongside, the criminals of different crimes and offenses are not appropriately accused as per law. As a result, the punishment and compensation process doesn’t produce accurate results and impacts people’s livelihood patterns.
8. Theoretical Framework
A theory has been followed to conduct the study. Based on the perceptions and contents of the mentioned theory below, the nature and level of victimizations have been assessed and determined. The Lifestyle Theory has been tested, and its propositions have been understood as follows:
Lifestyle theory or Lifestyle-exposure theory is a theory for understanding victimizations that acknowledges that community people don’t lead the same lifestyle and that the approach to life-exposure by the community people is not unique. The primary founder of the theory mentioned that people within the community are not interested in leading a similar lifestyle, and the movement by the people has occurred for many reasons and logical purposes (Corrado, Roesch, & Glockman, 1980). The different interests influence the community people, and they desire to make relationships, integrate with their community mates, and try to achieve their purpose by applying traditional interventions. The theory of lifestyle argues that community people have been gathered for a common interest and divided for their purposes as well. It is genuinely mentioned by the founders of the theory that victimizations and disputes have happened within the community by raising conflict for distributing social resources as per personal choice.
Motivated offenders have committed to violating community rules and legislative instructions. The lifestyle theory mentions that people are divided by their different lifestyles and approaches. People organize community-based social interactions and social movements to serve the common interests of the people. Theory noted that active guardianship can reduce the crime tendency of motivated offenders by activating community-based actions and collaborating with trust and confidence. The core premise of the lifestyle theory is to promote community interactions and to be aware of people who are in danger and vulnerable. Time, demand, perceptions, social inclusion, and related factors change people’s life approach. The tendency of victimization varies for time, space, and social perspectives. The statements noted by the theory have been observed under the study and mentioned the consequences in the findings part.
9. Findings: Demonstration and Interpretation
The study’s findings have been shown based on the nature of the objectives and research questions. The interviews with victims and key informants are described below:
9.1. Factors and Grounds Contributing to the Cause of Victimization
The ways to be affected through the process of victimization are analyzed in different aspects, understanding the societal situations of victimization and the post-traumatic aspects of victims and their families. Throughout the study, the victims as respondents were interviewed following an interview schedule using the case study method (CSM). The victims’ respondents have clarified the sufferings of victimization and mentioned the ways to be affected by the incidence of victimization. Victims have been influenced by different causal factors that insist on making victimizations within the community settings. The influential causes which have been heard from the respondents that happened criminal victimizations such as personal interest, source of community disputes and chaos, relational misunderstanding, property related dispute and mismanagement, discrimination of power, the tendency to show the community aristocracy, unfair interest for relation and sexual behavior, and previous intention for committing crimes and sufferings. The views of victims for being victimized by offenders are clarified as follows:
The respondent of victim “A” has been hampered locally by property-related disputes. The conducted study has asked the victims why they are hampered and how the process of victimization has occurred. Respondent ’A’ has been affected by property disputes and misunderstandings, which created unfair situations in the life of the victim. Respondent “A” has clarified the history of victimization in detail and the process by which property-related victimization has been opened. Respondent’ A’ noted that:
“I have been affected by property disputes by the man of my neighbor who has captured my land without any justification. As per the land documents of our territory, the land is used by me and supervised by me. And I have consumed the benefits of this land. A few days ago, my neighbor declared that the land under my control was his land. There is no actual clarification or documents regarding the statement given by my neighbor. Through the process, disputes and misunderstandings between my neighbor and I have been created. Finally, I have been tortured by my neighbor and hampered a lot without any reason.”
The conducted study has invented the total picture of criminal victimizations that happened within the community. The community people have been engaged in family conflicts and misunderstandings. The criminal incidents within the community reflect the theoretical assumptions. The lifestyle theory and practice of its components within the community have been seen in the analytical discourse of criminal affairs. Respondent “B” mentioned that aggressive behavior and unbearable movement by her husband had been committed against the respondent. The lifestyle of the husband and companionship with different criminal groups have been insisted to make violence against the wife. Respondent ‘B’ noted that:
“The conjugal misunderstanding between me and my husband has separated us. Most of the time of our daily life, the aggressive behavior has been done by my husband to me and sometimes, he has bitten me and ordered me to go to my father’s house. I was crying after getting physical torture and mental insult. How many days have I thought about how I can get released from the incident? I could not protest the husband’s behavior and uncivilized attitude, which had happened in front of my children. I have been victimized this way and affected in many ways, which hampered my daily life and activities, insulted as well.”
The community people have committed criminal activities without any logical grounds, just insisting zealously and not welcoming other achievements. The collective movement of community people has influenced each other by egoistic sentiments. Community people sometimes don’t accept the reward of neighbors and relatives. By nature, people feel agitated and anxious about others’ positive movement and progress. It indicates that the lifestyle approach and socialization are not promoted collectively. Some people in every community try to spoil the community spirit and rhythm. Self-centered people within the community make threats to other people who are near neighbors. Respondent “C” has feared the danger of harm by a neighbor and noted that:
“I have been threatened by my powerful neighbor who is living inside of my house. In the local community in my area of residence, I am renowned as a good citizen, and my children are doing well in the academic arena. However, the neighbor didn’t tolerate it and made different levels of disorganized behavior to disturb my livelihood pattern. By this, the victimization of my neighbor has been started. My neighbor called me indecent words and looked towards my wife and children with uncultured views. I felt very lonely and harmed that any time, any unexpected situation was made against me by my neighbor. That situation has been repaired by the direct intervention of the restorative agency of our local community.”
The juvenile groups within the local community make different unpleasant behaviors against women and female children. The female folk of the community have been violated in various ways, and the criminal gang has used different criminal techniques. The conducted study has evidence of teasing by males towards females, and devil signals have been made against the female community. In some cases, people with criminality have been forced to female for forceful dating and forced to listen to the voices of criminals. In this way, an environment of fear has occurred within the community, and by which some community people have been living under threats and discomfort. Respondent ‘D’ has been distressed by forceful teasing and dating and mentioned that:
“A vagabond of the local community has disturbed me and offered to date. In college-going duration, the vagabond has directly knocked me and proposed. I have protested in front of the community people. For the disturbance, I had to stop going to college, which hampered my academic career. I have been tensed and harmed mentally that my education career is going to be stopped, and I am being disadvantaged in education. Vagabond sent letters and desires through different people and proposed for marriage. I have been victimized in this way and reported to the restorative agency for repairing it with a peaceful conclusion.”
The study explored the behavior patterns of community people who insist on committing criminal activities. The community people are living by understanding with community mates and following the community rules and manners. The conducted study has invented that poor people with disadvantages have faced different levels of defamation by their powerful community mates. The poor people don’t protest rightly due to their various lack and scarcity of social status. Respondent ‘E’ has been blamed by the community people for mass theft and accused without any reason. Respondent ‘E’ opined that:
“A mass theft has happened in my local community. I didn’t know about it. But considering the previous zealous, some bad community people have tagged me in the work of thefting. I have been affected a lot and suffered more. I wasn’t involved with these activities. But my name has been written in the case of the police station. I am a man in my community with a good image and reputation. I have no power or social status as much. But I have been victimized for personal zealousness as well as criminalization. The investigation of the restorative agency has healed this case.”
Conceptual Factors
The key persons in the community were interviewed to know the factors and grounds contributing to the cause of victimization. Many factors and grounds have influenced the existing social structure of rural communities. These factors provoke people to violate the legal code and social values, producing different cases of victimization. The people in rural communities have been forced to engage in criminal activities due to various reasons and needs. Some people have been motivated to commit for personal interests, some are influenced by property and materialistic subjects, destructive emotions and outlooks provoke few, and few have committed crimes against a person’s social position and interests. According to the key informants, people with criminality have exposed themselves to capture others’ property and honor and create a chaotic atmosphere that disturbs the person’s liberty and freedom (see Figure 1). Considering the society’s aspects, most of the key informants (m, n, p, and r) identified the following factors of criminal victimization committed within the community settings:
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Source: Developed by researcher.
Figure 1. Conceptual factors contributing to criminal victimization.
9.2. Nature of Criminal Victimizations
The victim has been affected by the incidence of victimization within the community settings. The victim as respondents of the study has been interviewed knowing the nature of victimization and asked why it has been committed. Through the interview, the nature of victimization has been identified by name, and the process of victimization has been traced out and tried to find the cause behind victimization (CBV). The respondents of victims have clarified the process of victimization within the community by the offender(s). The respondents noted the procedure of victimization. It has mentioned the tendency of the criminality of community people, like offenders, who identified and understood how the community manners have been practiced. The victims have talked about the total elements of victimization and mentioned the design of victimization. The conducted study has invented the criminal components by interviewing the victims and framed the conceptual inputs of criminal victimizations.
Respondent “A” has been harmed due to a property dispute. A powerful neighbor with bad intentions captured the land of respondent “A”, which was under the control of the respondent. The land-related documentary has been nominated in favor of the respondent. Bad people have caused sorrow and pain for respondents by misusing their power and community arrogance. That means the community rules and values among the community members are decreasing, and a time for capturing other goods and property-related materials has started within the community. Respondent “A” mentioned that:
“I have been victimized by my neighbor due to property-related chaos. As per the land documents, I am the owner of this land, but the neighbor has captured this land using a forceful attitude and illegal exercise of power. The first time, I shared the land document with the occupant. But he didn’t care and continued to use the land as per his desire. I have requested the occupant so many times, but he didn’t care and threatened me as well. I called the community people to minimize the matter, but most people feared the occupant due to his power and unfair interventions. So, I have sent a notice to the local elected authority, and they have called a meeting to discuss how to solve it.”
Family disputes and misunderstandings between husband and wife are a regular phenomenon within community life. The study assessed family-related criminal behaviors and identified the causes beyond criminal actions. The family members of the interviewed respondents have faced different social crises that bloomed the family relationships among members. The culture of family democracy, dialogue for family matters, sharing for solving any unrest and crisis, absence of capable guardianship, and level of sacrifice among members have not worked satisfactorily. The analyzed family criminal victimizations have noticed that the components of lifestyle and routine activity theory are activated within the community by the people and spoil the community balance. The interviewed respondent of “B” opined that:
“I have been suffering from family disputes on the grounds of conjugal misunderstanding with my husband. In the daily discussion with my husband, a misunderstanding was made, and it crossed the limit. I have kept myself in my father’s house, and my communication with my husband has not been done correctly. So, a gap has been made between us. We have no children right now. After a few days, I requested the local representatives to minimize the matter. They have done it by inviting both of us. The nature of my victimization of mine has been expressed in a way that has affected me as well as suffered.”
Respondent “C” has been threatened by a powerful neighbor due to the best performance of kids and the prestige of the family in community life. The community is a significant agent in making peace within the community and obliges the members to follow the community’s regulations and values. However, the case of respondent “C” was different from expectations. The victimization case of respondent “C” has declared that the community tolerance and inspiration by the community members for good works and jobs have been stopped for different reasons and a few devil people are found who insist others make disputes for unfair benefits. Respondent “C” claimed that:
“A powerful neighbor is living inside of my house. They have a big territory with full resources and property. I try to maintain a good relationship with my neighbor’s family. But sometimes, they forcefully expose some opinions that will be maintained by everyone, including me. Another reason was that my children were doing well in their academic careers. But most of the children of my neighbor were not doing well. Jealously has been made due to academic matters. But it was not confined to the academic matter. Without reason, they forced me to follow their comments and order. When I didn’t do it, they spoiled my property with their subordinate of the house. In that situation, I complained to the local restorative body to minimize the matter peacefully. By this incident, I have been victimized emotionally and passing the time by a horror atmosphere that hampered my life and normal pattern of living.”
Community governance in community life is important for a community. The people within the community having bad intentions are made disturbance for community people who are less powerful and facing gender-based discrimination and disadvantage. Respondent “D” has been disturbed by a community vagabond in front of community people, more or less. And it is known by all at the primary stage. The victimization might be resolved in the primary situation, but the community people have not shown their eagerness collectively preventing the unfair movement by vagabonds. The victimization, like the case of respondent “D”, has been healed through the interventions of restorative agencies locally, which are working in different ways with different names. Respondent “D” referred to the nature of victimization as follows:
“I have suffered from the concept of teasing and forceful dating in my local community by a local vagabond. During the duration of going to college, the vagabond has disturbed me in different ways, such as saying some objectionable words, calling my name in front of my friends, sounding an ear of corn, proposing marriage in front of my friends, and touching my hands. Some days, I stopped going to college, which made my behavior and livelihood pattern uneasier. At the time, I informed my parents and senior brothers. They called the vagabond and arranged a meeting with the local reconciliation agency to solve the matter. Through a long time discussion, the participants have come out with a decision to stop the vagabond’s disturbing and create an atmosphere without fearing for going to college and continuing my academic career.”
9.3. Social Dynamics Behind Victimization(s) in Bangladesh
The victimizations which are committed in Bangladesh are influenced by some significant factors. These factors produce potential cause(s) to commit crimes that turn into victimizations. The socio-cultural dimensions of Bangladesh’s society operate in a complex way that influences people to break down their level of personality and tolerance capacity. In the contextual content of the study, the respondents have opined that most of the victimizations have been done due to losing the temperature and moral values, and social learning has failed to control the person’s behavior and strength for defense (see Table 3). The summarization of all respondents’ (victim) feedback for committing criminal victimization is as follows:
Table 3. Social dynamics behind victimization(s) in rural structure.
culture of family violence questionable socialization in family and community less priority of social governance peer group affiliation and gang culture avoiding community values and regulation patriarchal social systems and violent behavior questions about emotional fitness and capacity to face behavior calamities |
absence of social democracy in community settings confusing role and responsibility of educational institutions learn different unexpected cultural components from social media dilemma in community interactions culture of gender discrimination and intolerance absent of capable guardianship and guidance |
less practiced of community affiliation and togetherness post-modernization and its impact on the behavior of individual lacking of mutual collaboration and influenced by personal interest accepted the culture of violence by the institutions of society substance abuse and depending on alcohol faulty community association and overcrowding |
Source: Developed by researcher.
By the consequences of incidence, we are treated as victims. But we are told that the offender has lost their temperature and defense capacity to fight against incidence properly as well as logical bargaining. We think that the causal factors for crimes in Bangladesh are produced within the society. The culture of logical bargaining is not practiced in Bangladeshi society. The local people with arrogance and audacity have to make any incidence using power, resources, and local family status. Most of the time, arrogant people are involved in victimization without explanation and breaking the community-based relational bonding. We think that the causal factors of victimization in Bangladesh are produced within the society.
The community-based criminal victimizations have been committed within the community for different reasons and grounds. Considering the responses of the key informants to determine the causal factors of victimization are framed out as ways.
9.4. Interpretation by Victims about the Reasons for Committed Victimizations
In Bangladesh, criminal victimization has been committed due to many reasons that are influenced by causal factors. In the question about the thinking of committing criminal victimizations, the respondents have mentioned so many reasons that are germinated within the community settings. The people of the community have passed life with the connection of community, touching and bearing the community-based relationship. In the process of data collection, a significant observation has been noticed that the causal factors for committing criminal victimizations are produced within the dimensions of relationships and interactions. All respondents of victims mentioned three dimensions as follows:
The offender has committed criminal victimization due to so many reasons. The strength of behavior and capacity for controlling anti-social behavior is needed and should be practiced. Most of the offenders have committed crimes, showing their authorization within the local community. Most of the offenders are interested in showing up to power exercise and prove their arrogance.
The culture of Bangladesh is complex and requires critical interventions. It observes that people who are offenders by the consequence, the cultural frame accepted their behavioral actions. It may have nothing to do here. That means that if the cultural traits of any society like Bangladesh entertain the offender and promote their activities for so many reasons, the scope to be victimized will be increased. That means the source to germinate the causes of crimes is activated within the culture. Cultural components are the main causal factors for committing criminal victimizations.
People’s behavioral tendencies are being changed due to cultural globalization and the destructive influence of social equations. It looks like some people are being satisfied to hit and harm someone. People are changing and are not focusing on the dimensions of relationships and human interactions. Human cooperation is disappearing day by day. A person gets pleasure by causing trauma and pain to anybody.
9.5. Aftermath Impacts of Victimizations on Community Life
Criminal victimization has made different levels of impact on community life. Criminal victimization has inner destructive strength to spoil the social atmosphere and cause chaos within the community settings. This type of chaos causes disturbance among the community members regarding trust, confidence, social gathering, and mutual fighting against anti-social events. It is mentioned that criminal victimization breaks down the social integration and holistic pattern of social bonding.
The victim has suffered different levels of pain and harm after the criminal victimization. The victims with poor support and services have faced various difficulties in surviving and continuing relationships with their community mates. The conducted study has identified that victims have been puzzled after victimization for protecting the social image and early recovery (see Table 4).
Table 4. Impacts of criminal victimizations on community life.
Physical impacts |
Financial impacts |
Social and adjustment-related
impacts |
The victim is injured physically most of the time. As the cause of physical impacts of victimization, so many complications are generated in the domain of physiology and lifestyle. The physical injury causes the following problems: shock, disbelief and denial, anger, fear, frustration, confusion, guilt, shame, and grief. Criminal victimization is such a kind of suffering that forces the victim to lose control over the body and mind in the aspects of working stamina. |
Through the incidence of victimization, the victim has been hampered by the source of income-generating sector(s). This incident has made insecurity to maintain the family and the expenses of family member’s life. Criminal victimization has destroyed the scope of property and sometimes may create potential threats that create unrest in the domain of community life. For the unrest and insecurity of victims due to criminal victimization, the investment wish is being stopped and hampered. The dependent members of the family are being isolated and different types of misunderstanding are generated. |
The victim of criminal victimization has suffered from the issues of social injuries. The social life of victims has been hampered and the community-based social movement is being limited. That type of situation isolates the victim and forces to the decision of suicide in some cases. The community people are asked so many questions about the victim to know the role of the victim in this incident. The community’s unacceptance has made so many adjustments questions as well as fitness-oriented dimensions to operate a healthy life. The victims avoid social functions, neglected by their peer groups and relatives (in some cases). The victim has to be asked many questions by the community people. |
Source: Developed by researcher.
Respondent “B” claimed that:
“Criminal victimization in the community life has destroyed my life and position. The understanding between me and the community has gone under threats and consideration. As a victim, I have faced a lot of problems like physical torture, threats from different corners in different situations of life, and searching scopes by offenders for harm and traumas. The total livelihood pattern of me as a victim has changed and turned into a horror position and the community support has stopped due to fear and threats by the offender. The offender has created a new scope of victimization that may be made by the offender and groups patronized by the offender. At a glance, the life and process of progress of me is going under threats and painful situations.”
The respondents as victims have mentioned the impacts of victimization that hamper their life and livelihood patterns, which are described as follows:
9.6. Victimizations Made by Offenders and Social Reactions
The restorative agency has given importance to stopping recidivism. Recidivism is such a concept that crimes are frequently influenced by potential factors. The restorative justice agency has focused on recidivism and launched some significant programs that gather the community’s people. Offenders who are committing crimes repeatedly and are valued with dishonor within the community settings. This type of stigmatization is not a good phenomenon for offenders as human beings who live within community settings and desire human relationships. The community people disliked persons who had involved themselves in criminal activities and broken down community discipline. The masses have avoided the offenders and their families in social functions and other social activities at the community level. The perceptions of community people are not satisfied towards offenders. The respondents of victims mentioned that:
A person could commit any crime for many reasons, and the undesirable situation has stimulated the person to commit crimes. We look in our community that regular offenders are considered dishonored and neglected by the common people of the community. The community people are like persons who are disciplined in community life and maintain order, which promotes community peace and progress.
In our community life, the restorative agency has started focal point programs that help the masses incorporate the offenders in the question of reintegration and establishment. We have to mention that without a potential environment, criminal victimization may not be committed within the community.
The community people avoid offenders, but the restorative justice agency is working to assist the offenders, leaving the tendency for criminal activities. We help the offenders who understand the situation and their guilt for doing crimes. Finally, we, as community people, see the penitent expressions of offenders. We have promoted forgiveness towards offenders and the surroundings.
9.7. Policy Interventions and Community-Based Functions
The victims have been injured by different cases of victimization in Bangladesh’s society. The rural social structure of Bangladesh works, maintaining various components and influences through complex thematic discourse. Due to this nature, the people in rural communities lead their lives and livelihoods following various natures with simplicity and complexity as well. Influenced by different factors that provoke people to commit crimes and unlawful activities in community life to destroy the rights and social position of the target person(s), it is a continuous challenge for the law-enforcement agency(s) to ensure justice and to provide post-victim services and supports. The Village Court Act 2006 and The Local Government (Union Parishad) Act 2009 have been applied through the appropriate channels to address the conflict among the inhabitants within the community settings. However, the expected outcomes and consequences aimed at reducing victimization in rural communities of Bangladesh have not been addressed and have not resulted in effective governance within the community to curb criminal intentions. As per the responses and opinions mentioned by the victims and key informants of the conducted study, the following interventions can be taken as policy and community-based functions to protect victims and their families and to save the community from all kinds of offenses:
9.7.1. Community-Based Victim Recovery Plan (CVRP)
The government should prepare a Community-based Victim Recovery Plan (CVRP) for victims and affected persons who suffer a lot to get back to normal life and regular activities.
9.7.2. Community-Based Preparation (CBP)
Based on the discussion of the study’s key informants, a Community-based Preparation (CBP) to protect the victims and their families should be maintained, and services should be provided that meet the victims’ demands.
9.7.3. Community-Based Resilience Program (CRP)
A Community-based Resilience Program (CRP), including the key persons of the community, should be made to take care of all, and the crime-prone factors and dynamics of the rural structure should be controlled through community-centered interventions and functions.
9.7.4. Formal Legal Procedure (FLP) and Community-Based Justice
Settings (CJS)
The Justice-based interventions from the Formal Legal Procedure (FLP) and Community-based Justice Settings (CJS) should be activated as per the situation and demand to ensure a secure community life where people from all social backgrounds will continue their affiliation based on fundamental desire.
10. Concluding Remark
The study has been designed to know the dynamics and factors contributing cause to victimization(s) in the rural social structure of Bangladesh. Applying the qualitative design, based on Case Study and Key Informant interview methods, the required data was collected and interpreted. According to the respondents of victims and key informants, the rural social structure comprises both components, like simple and complex actions. These types of actions produce various factors and dynamics that influence people to commit crimes and violate legal and community-based behavioral codes and regulations. Under the study, the social dynamics that have provoked people to commit crimes and unlawful actions are identified and understood from different corners and lenses. By contrast, existing rules and practices in community settings have been understood from the victim’s and key informants’ responses. Both types of respondents were interviewed, and observation was applied to observe the field situation of criminal victimization. All factors and consequences have been determined and interpreted to realize the study problem from all ground, particularly from the rural context. The propositions of Lifestyle Theory have been seen in the case(s) of victimization in rural settings. The respondents offered pertinent recommendations to overcome victimization and its impacts, such as a community-based justice approach and recovery interventions from legal and community grounds. These actions create a collaborative environment for all. The post-victim situation of victims in the rural structure creates different difficulties and challenges to get back to normal life and movement. The recommendations offered by respondents can be implemented through government agencies and development institutions. As the victims and key informants mentioned, legal interventions can mitigate and minimize maximum crime-prone factors.