Influence of Organizational Management Culture on Remote Employee Engagement Post-Pandemic, Measured by EENDEED, a Validated Instrument ()
1. Introduction
Management and the culture that it establishes and perpetuates within an organization plays a critical role in fostering a culture of employee engagement. The traditional culture-building to-do list offered by management organizations, such as free and low cost employee benefits and annual employee surveys, is no longer effective. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, how managers interact with employees on the job and remotely has changed remarkably. As reported by Yohn (2021) in the Harvard Business Review, “culture has become a strategic priority with impact on the bottom line” (p. 1). Consequently, it is important to understand and embrace the nuances caused by and attendant with this reported new era in the organization’s workplace. Inasmuch all levels of management in the organization are involved in impacting and shaping the employee’s cultural experience, this research study elected to take a closer look-see at two key aspects of the emerging organizational culture post pandemic, namely the management culture and its relationship to the engagement of remote workers. This choice was informed by management’s presumed domain over culture development, the employee’s experience of the culture, and the net accountability overall.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Managing a Remote Employee Culture and Engagement
Culture influences employee attitudes and behavior as they are guided by its values, norms and assumptions (Gregory et al., 2009; Nayak & Barik, 2013) . As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to evolve into an endemic, some workforce communities may seemingly be adjusting and progressing in their new culture of remote work. The way work was conducted and managed pre-pandemic could have been taken for granted while adapting to the post-pandemic hybrid work era potentially sheds light on a new way of work. In fact, to achieve sustainable competitiveness globally, Sayyadi (2022) pointed out collaboration, trust and learning as three dimensions of organizational culture that management executives must evaluate because they are vital to the organizational knowledge cycle effectiveness (p. 25).
Therefore, supportive leadership and an established culture must exist within an organization (Dula & Tang, 2021) to engage, motivate, inspire, and sustain the continuity of productive work in a remote environment. A leader can be a manager; however, a manager is not necessarily a leader (Kotter, 2008) . In 2020, Gallup reported managerial, or leadership positions were the largest decline in employee engagement (Harper, 2020) . Among these, the declivity for managers were greatest compared to individual contributors and executive leaders in the four percent point declination in engagement (Harper, 2020) .
Generally, organizations consider their employees as a key asset since employee performance is the primary determinant of the organization’s success (Hadi & Ahmed, 2018; Tate, 2015; Waheed et al., 2017) . Various management practices can be an influential vessel that guides the flow of an organization’s culture. Among these practices, developing relationships can be a key component. The core relationship a manager has with their employees can play a critical part in an employee’s engagement within the organization. Management has influence that can inspire, empower, ignite motivation, and cultivate feedback to engage remote employees in their work.
2.2. Management Catalyzing Employee Engagement through Organizational Culture
Multiple recent studies have found positive outcomes of employee engagement (Rakatu et al., 2022; Rich et al., 2019; Tate, 2015; Tate et al., 2019, 2021) in business. Employee engagement can contribute to profitable financial gains for an organization, yet employees working in a contradictory culture can pose some challenges and disengage employees, that in turn, impact the organization’s overall success. So what does organizational culture really means in relations to employee engagement? Organizational culture can be referred to as corporate culture, workplace culture or company culture. Workplace culture can be a singular or compilation of values, principles, and beliefs individuals share or can relate to within a company. Bhandari et al. (2022) refer corporate or organizational culture to “shared values, beliefs, and standards that characterize members of a company” (p. 1). Deloitte (2016) explains culture as “systems of values, beliefs, and behaviors that shape how actual work gets done” (p. 3). In other words, culture is simply “the way we work here” (p. 3). Further, culture and engagement are critical business drivers in an organization’s performance, hiring, retention and innovation (p. 3). Organizations that proactively manage its company culture usually have 30% higher innovation levels, 40% higher retention levels, and demonstrate revenue growth over a 10-year period averaging 516% higher than those companies who do not manage their culture (p. 3). Executives must create an engaging and open environment for employees to convert their individual knowledge into valuable resources for the company to close performance gaps and help thrive the company (Sayyadi, 2022) . Albeit, the way work is done within an organization can either yield a positive impact or a long road to travel many learned lessons. It is critical, according to Deloitte (2016) to understand and actively manage the mechanisms of both culture and engagement, and how they mold the road to achieving your strategy. Therefore, since remote work has become more prevalent globally, gaining a profound understanding of cultural values, shared beliefs, and other organizational determinants for engagement can be a key factor that managers should consider while influencing employee engagement.
2.3. Similarities and Differences between Leading and Managing
In the review of the literature about leaders and managers, Kniffin et al. (2020) found a notable distinction between leadership and management. That said, there are many variations and distinctions about leaders and managers resident in the literature by writers such as Kotter (1999, 2008) and Zaleznik (1991) . For example, as reported by Kotter in 1999 , managing is characterized by such activities as “planning and budgeting; organizing and staffing; controlling and problem solving”, while leading is said to be associated with activities such as “establishing direction, aligning people, motivating and inspiring” (pp. 4-5).
Albeit, leading and managing are similar in some ways as well. For example, they are both “involved in deciding what gets done, creating networks of and relationships that can accomplish an agenda, and then trying to ensure that those people actually get the job done” (Kotter, 1999: p. 5) .
Further, leaders are generally preferred over managers (Kniffin et al., 2020) . According to Ryan and Deci (2000) , this preference exists because they meet the need of belongingness and autonomy which are two fundamental human needs. Moreover, although there are several similarities as well as differences, we can all agree that leaders and managers are both inextricably needed and valued in creating a successful organization.
As reported by Yohn (2021) , middle managers are important members of the management team’s effort to install and nurture the desired culture. Like members of senior management, they are critical to affecting employee experiences by interpreting and reinforcing the desired culture. This action is manifest by “implementing culture-building strategies, cultivating employee engagement with the desired culture, and fulfilling the culture-building responsibilities of employees” (Yohn, 2021: p. 4) .
3. Research Questions and Hypotheses
This study sought to answer the research question: what is the impact of the organizational management culture on remote employee engagement. Addressing this omnibus question meant answering various sub questions as presented below:
RQ1: Does the management culture of an organization as defined by OCAI contribute to its remote employees’ engagement?
RQ2: What is the organizational management culture that contributes most to remote employee engagement?
RQ3: Do all organization management cultures as defined by the OCAI contribute positively to remote employee engagement?
The following null hypotheses (Hx-0) and alternate hypotheses (Hx-A) were proposed in answering the research questions.
H1-0: There is no statistically significant relationship between the management culture of an organization as defined by OCAI and its remote employees’ engagement.
H1-A: There is a statistically significant relationship between the management culture of an organization as defined by OCAI and its remote employees’ engagement.
H2-0: There is no organization management culture contributing most to remote employee engagement.
H2-A: There is an organization management culture that contributes most to remote employee engagement.
H3-0: Some management cultures as defined by the OCAI framework do not contribute positively to remote employee engagement.
H3-A: All management cultures as defined by the OCAI framework contribute positively to remote employee engagement.
4. Methodology
4.1. Research Approach and Measurement Instrument
To analyze the influence of organizational management culture on remote employee engagement, this study implemented a quantitative non-experimental correlational design. Using self-administered questionnaires, randomly selected participants responded by filling the survey online. The survey included two validated instruments, namely the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) to measure the organization’s management culture, and the Enhanced Engagement Nurtured by Determination, Efficacy, and Exchange Dimensions (EENDEED), a validated 9-item scale for measuring employee engagement.
The first tool used in the survey was the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI), an instrument developed by Cameron and Quinn (2006) . This validated tool was used for the measurement of organizational culture as it relates to management. The OCAI has four main questions of organizational management culture and all four were used in this survey. The questions of organizational management culture are presented as follows:
TEAMWORK: The management style in my organization is characterized by teamwork, consensus, and participation.
INNOVATION: The management style in my organization is characterized by individual risk taking, innovation, freedom, and uniqueness.
COMPETITION: The management style in my organization is characterized by hard-driving competitiveness, high demands, and achievement.
CONFORMITY: The management style in my organization is characterized by security of employment, conformity, predictability, and stability in relationships.
The second tool used in the survey was EENDEED (Enhanced Engagement Nurtured by Determination, Efficacy, and Exchange Dimensions). Developed by Lartey and Randall (2022) , EENDEED is a validated instrument that measures traditional workers and remote employees’ levels of engagement. It was used in this study to measure employee engagement. EENDEED has nine items measuring 1) authenticity, 2) motivation, 3) expressiveness, 4) recognition, 5) interest, 6) career planning, 7) autonomy, 8) confidence, and 9) empathy. These nine items are grouped in two categories or factors: performance and self-reliance. Performance includes items 1 through 6 and performance includes items 6 through 9 as presented in Figure 1.
The resulting survey questionnaire was completed online by a random sample of qualified participants.
4.2. Population and Sample Size
The tool GPower 3.1 was used to estimate the appropriate sample size for the study. An a-priori analysis was performed, using four predictors, an alpha or error probability of 0.05, and an expected power of 0.95. The output of the a-priori analysis suggested a sample size of 129. For this study, 250 participants filled a survey questionnaire online. All the participants were workers residing in the United States of America. With 250 participants, the sample size was considered adequate for the study as this number was well above the 129 recommended by GPower 3.1. Nonetheless, a post-hock analysis was conducted to ascertain the adequacy of the sample size. This was done using GPower 3.1 with an effect size of 0.15, and the result showed an achieved power of 0.99, which was greater than the expected power of 0.95. As such, the study could proceed as the sample size was deemed adequate for data analysis.
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Figure 1. Theoretical framework of the study inquiring the relationship between organizational management culture as defined by OCAI and employee engagement as defined by EENDEED.
4.3. Data Analysis
Data analysis for this study proceeded first with the calculation of the Cronbach Alpha to confirm the validity of the survey instrument. Using SPSS version 21, the Cronbach Alpha was estimated using the function Analyze/Scale/Reliability Analysis. All 13 items composing the survey instrument were selected and added to the analysis. These items included the nine from EENDEED measuring remote employee engagement, and four from the OCAI tool measuring organizational management culture. An alpha of 0.87 was observed, which was greater than the 0.70 considered suitable for studies as explained by Taber (2018) . This resulting alpha indicated good internal consistency of the survey instrument and called for the study to proceed.
4.4. Assumptions of Multiple Regression
The assumptions of multiple regression were validated to confirm the appropriateness of the use of multiple regression on the collected data. To that effect, there was one dependent variable identified as ENGAGEMENT, representing the participant’s engagement score. Four variables were identified as predictors or independent variables, namely TEAMWORK, INNOVATION, COMPETITION, and CONFORMITY. All independent variables were observed variables while the dependent variable was a latent variable computed as the sum of its observed variables.
The ratio of cases to independent variables was confirmed based on the recommendations from Khamis and Kepler (2010) as well as Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) . The authors recommended the minimum sample size (n) to be n ≥ 50 + 8 × m, where m is the number of independent variables (IVs). As such, n needed to be n ≥ 50 + (8 × 4) = n ≥ 82. With 250 participants and 4 IVs, the ratio of 62.5 cases to IV was considered to fulfil the assumption.
In addition to the ratio of cases to IV being validated, there were no missing cases identified as all 250 candidates filled their questionnaires properly. Furthermore, an analysis of univariate outliers using the z-scores of each variable showed all z-scores within the range from −3.29 to +3.29 as suggested by Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) . At this point, the assumptions of absence of missing values as well as absence of univariate outliers were confirmed.
The assumption of multivariate outliers was evaluated using the Mahalanobis distance of each case. The Mahalanobis distance (MAH_1) was computed using the SPSS function Analyze/Regression/Linear and selecting Mahalanobis in Distances box from the save option as explained by Lartey (2021) . Next, the probability for a case being a multivariate outlier was computed as 1 − CDF.CHISQ (MAH_1, 4). Only one record was identified with a resulting value less than 0.001, but decision was made to keep it in the dataset as its impact was considered negligible on the overall analysis.
The assumption of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity was validated using the analysis of the residuals. In addition, the absence of multicollinearity and singularity was validated using the variance inflation factor (VIF) and the tolerance.
5. Results
With all the assumptions of multiple regression validated, a standard multiple regression model was created to answer the research questions. This model assessed the impact of the organizational management culture as defined by the OCAI framework on employee engagement as measured by EENDEED, a nine-item instrument developed by Lartey and Randall (2022) . Organizational management culture was characterized by TEAMWORK, INNOVATION, COMPETITION, and CONFORMITY. The resulting model confirmed the presence of a significant regression equation F(4, 249) = 36.78, p < 0.001 as shown in Table 1. This table of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) answers the first research question RQ1 that asked, “Does the management culture of an organization as defined by OCAI contribute to its remote employees’ engagement?” The null hypothesis of no contribution was rejected, and the alternate hypothesis retained. As such, the findings confirmed that there was a statistically significant relationship between an organization’s management culture and its employees’ level of engagement. In other words, the organization management culture as defined by OCAI contributes to employee engagement.
The R2 of 0.375 for the final model is shown on Table 2, suggesting that this model explains 37.5 percent of the variability in the dependent variable. As a result, there is a significant correlation between the organization management culture and employee engagement (p < 0.001).
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Table 1. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showing a significant F statistic confirming that the R-Square of the solution is significantly greater than zero.
a. Dependent Variable: ENGAGEMENT. b. Predictors: (Constant), CONFORMITY, COMPETITION, INNOVATION, TEAM_WORK.
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Table 2. Model summary showing an R2 of 0.437.
a. Predictors: (Constant), CONFORMITY, COMPETITION, INNOVATION, TEAM_WORK. b. Dependent Variable: ENGAGEMENT.
The final model showing the contribution and significance of each independent variable is displayed in Table 3 which includes the unstandardized regression coefficients (B), the standardized coefficients (Beta), the t-score of each dependent variable and their corresponding p-value or significance, and finally the collinearity statistics (VIF and tolerance). This table was used in answering research questions RQ2 and RQ3.
RQ2 asked, “What is the organizational management culture that contributes most to remote employee engagement?” Table 3 shows that of the four management culture items of an organization as specified by the OCAI framework namely TEAMWORK, INNOVATION, COMPETITION, and CONFORMITY, TEAMWORK has the highest contribution in predicting employee engagement as confirmed by its t-score. As such, the null hypothesis H2-0 was rejected, and the alternate hypothesis H2-1 retained.
RQ3 asked, “Do all organization management cultures as defined by the OCAI contribute positively to remote employee engagement?” Table 3 shows that COMPETITION based management cultures do not significantly contribute to employee engagement. Indeed, the resulting p-value is not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The null hypothesis H3-0 of non-contribution was retained, and the alternate hypothesis H3-1 rejected.
6. Discussions, Limitations, and Future Studies
6.1. Discussion
Management and the culture it establish within an organization play a critical role in fostering employee engagement. As organizations navigate the evolving landscape of remote work, understanding the nuances of the new era in the workplace is vital. The traditional approaches to culture-building offered by management organizations, such as free employee benefits and annual surveys, have become ineffective in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is crucial to explore and embrace the changes and challenges posed by this new remote work culture.
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Table 3. Model presentation showing the contribution and significance of each independent variable.
a. Dependent Variable: ENGAGEMENT.
Culture influences employee attitudes and behavior, guided by its values, norms, and assumptions (Gregory et al., 2009; Nayak & Barik, 2013) . To achieve sustainable competitiveness, collaboration, trust, and learning have been identified as vital dimensions of organizational culture. Supportive leadership and an established culture are necessary to engage, motivate, inspire, and sustain remote employees in their work. However, Gallup (Harper, 2020) reports a decline in employee engagement among managerial positions, highlighting the importance of effective management in fostering engagement.
Organizational culture, also known as corporate or workplace culture, consists of shared values, beliefs, and behaviors within a company (Bhandari et al., 2022) . It shapes how work gets done and has a significant impact on engagement, retention, innovation, and overall performance. Organizations that actively manage their culture have been shown to achieve higher levels of innovation, retention, and revenue growth (Deloitte, 2016) . Understanding and actively managing culture and engagement are critical for aligning organizational strategy and achieving success.
The results of the study confirmed a significant relationship between organizational management culture and remote employee engagement. Specifically, the analysis revealed that teamwork had the highest contribution to employee engagement, while competition-focused cultures did not significantly contribute to engagement. These findings suggest that organizations should prioritize fostering a culture of teamwork to enhance remote employee engagement.
In conclusion, this study emphasizes the critical role of organizational management culture in shaping remote employee engagement. The findings highlight the significance of supportive leadership, the impact of different cultural dimensions, and the need for effective management practices. The study contributes to the understanding of the complex dynamics between culture and engagement in the remote work context. It is recommended that organizations focus on cultivating a culture of teamwork and consider the unique challenges and opportunities of remote work in their management strategies. Further research should explore qualitative methods, cross-cultural studies, and industry-specific investigations to gain deeper insights into remote employee engagement and develop context-specific interventions.
6.2. Limitations
Although this study contributes valuable insights into the relationship between organizational management culture and remote employee engagement, certain limitations should be acknowledged.
Exclusion of Hybrid Workforce Participants. Although some organizations are transitioning back to full-time office work, others have adopted a hybrid workforce model, where employees have the flexibility to work both onsite and remotely. This study focused solely on remote employees who work from home or in locations separate from a centralized workplace. Consequently, the findings may not fully capture the dynamics and nuances specific to a hybrid work environment.
To address this limitation, future research should incorporate participants from hybrid work settings. By including employees who experience both onsite and remote work, researchers can gain a comprehensive understanding of the unique challenges and engagement factors in such contexts. This can be achieved by conducting surveys, interviews, or observations within organizations that have implemented hybrid work arrangements. This approach will provide valuable insights into how the combination of onsite and remote work influences employee engagement and identify strategies for optimizing engagement in hybrid work settings.
Lack of Industry Specificity. This study did not focus on a specific industry but rather included remote employees across various industries. Different industries may have distinct characteristics, work practices, and organizational cultures that impact employee engagement differently. Therefore, the findings may not be fully generalizable or applicable to specific industry contexts.
Future research should consider incorporating industry-specific studies to account for the unique factors at play in different sectors. By focusing on specific industries, researchers can explore the industry-specific challenges and engagement drivers relevant to remote employees. This can be achieved by conducting surveys or interviews within organizations from different industries, comparing the findings across sectors. The insights gained from industry-specific research will enable the development of tailored strategies and interventions to enhance employee engagement in each industry.
Geographical Variation. The findings of this study are limited to the United States and may not be generalized to other geographical locations. Geographical variations in cultural norms, work practices, and organizational structures can significantly impact the dynamics of remote employee engagement.
To overcome this limitation, future research should include participants from diverse geographical locations to capture the influence of different contexts on remote employee engagement. By conducting cross-cultural studies, researchers can compare and contrast the findings across countries or regions. This can be achieved by collaborating with international research partners or employing multinational survey samples. By examining remote employee engagement in different cultural and geographical contexts, researchers can identify commonalities and differences, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence engagement worldwide.
Limited Measurement Instrument. This study utilized the EENDEED instrument, a nine-item engagement measure specifically developed for remote employees. While this instrument is tailored to remote work settings and based on established theoretical frameworks, the use of a single measurement tool may limit the comprehensive assessment of employee engagement, attitudes, and behaviors.
To address this limitation, future research should consider employing multiple measurement instruments to capture a broader range of engagement dimensions. Researchers can utilize established scales that assess various facets of employee engagement, such as affective, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions. By incorporating multiple measurement tools, researchers can obtain a more comprehensive understanding of remote employee engagement and its determinants. Additionally, conducting qualitative research, such as interviews or focus groups, can complement quantitative measures, providing richer insights into the subjective experiences and perceptions of remote employees.
Sole Reliance on Quantitative Approach. While this study employed a quantitative approach to investigate the variables and constructs related to organizational management culture and remote employee engagement, there is potential for a deeper understanding through qualitative research methods. Quantitative methods provide valuable insights into the overall relationships and statistical associations between variables. However, they may not capture the richness and context-specific details that qualitative methods can offer.
To address this limitation, future research should consider incorporating qualitative research methods to gain a more nuanced examination of the impact of organizational management culture on remote employee engagement. Qualitative exploration would allow researchers to delve into specific situations, such as downsizing, mergers, or layoffs, and consider employee attitudes and experiences in relation to these factors. By conducting interviews or focus groups with remote employees, researchers can capture the intricacies, nuances, and subjective viewpoints that may not be fully captured by quantitative measures alone. This qualitative approach will provide a deeper understanding of the experiences, perceptions, and attitudes of remote employees, enriching the understanding of the relationship between organizational management culture and remote employee engagement.
In conclusion, while this study contributes important findings regarding organizational management culture and remote employee engagement, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the limitations of the study to enrich understanding of remote employee engagement across different work environments, industries, cultural contexts, and measurement dimensions. By addressing these research gaps, scholars can further advance understanding of the complex dynamics influencing remote employee engagement, providing valuable insights for both academia and practitioners.
6.3. Opportunities for Future Research
To enhance the robustness and generalizability of these findings, future research should address these limitations by conducting cross-cultural studies, employing qualitative methods, exploring additional moderators, and conducting organization-specific research.
Cross-cultural Studies. Future research should prioritize conducting cross-cultural studies to explore the influence of organizational management culture on remote employee engagement in diverse cultural contexts. By including participants from different countries and regions, researchers can examine how cultural factors interact with organizational culture to shape remote employee engagement. This will provide a comprehensive understanding of the cultural nuances and variations in the relationship between culture and engagement. It will also allow for the development of culturally adaptive strategies for managing and engaging remote employees across different cultural backgrounds.
Qualitative Methods for Deeper Insights. To gain a deeper understanding of the impact of organizational management culture on remote employee engagement, future research should employ qualitative methods. Qualitative exploration, such as interviews, focus groups, or case studies, will provide researchers with in-depth insights into the experiences, perceptions, and attitudes of remote employees. Qualitative methods can capture the contextual nuances, individual perspectives, and situational factors that quantitative measures may overlook. By adopting a qualitative approach, researchers can uncover rich and detailed information that enhances our understanding of how organizational management culture influences remote employee engagement, particularly in relation to specific situations like downsizing, mergers, or layoffs.
Exploration of Additional Moderators. Future research should expand the investigation of organizational management culture and remote employee engagement by exploring additional moderators. Cultural differences, for instance, can significantly shape employee perceptions, values, and behaviors. Examining how cultural factors moderate the relationship between organizational culture and remote employee engagement will provide valuable insights into the interplay between culture, engagement, and remote work. Additionally, other potential moderators, such as organizational size, industry type, or leadership styles, should be explored to better understand the contextual factors that influence the relationship between organizational management culture and remote employee engagement.
Organization-Specific Research. Conducting organization-specific research is another promising avenue for future research. By focusing on specific organizations or companies, researchers can capture the unique sentiments, interactions, and challenges faced by remote employees within those specific contexts. This approach will provide an in-depth understanding of how organizational management culture influences remote employee engagement within the dynamics of a particular organization. Additionally, it offers the opportunity to explore how change management strategies can be implemented effectively to improve organizational culture and enhance remote employee engagement. This organization-specific research will provide actionable insights and recommendations that are tailored to the specific needs of each organization.
By pursuing these future research opportunities, scholars can advance knowledge of the complex dynamics surrounding organizational management culture and its impact on remote employee engagement. These research avenues will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the topic and provide practical insights for both academia and practitioners.
7. Conclusion
In this study, we investigated the overall question, what is the influence of an organization’s management culture on remote employee engagement? With the unique conditions brought about by the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic. Further, the investigation focused on the unique impact of the organization’s management culture characterized by TEAMWORK, INNOVATION, COMPETITION, and CONFORMITY as advanced by the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) framework on employee engagement (Cameron & Quinn, 2006) .
As reported earlier in this treatise, the findings revealed that the organizational management culture as defined by OCAI framework does contribute to remote employee engagement. Moreover, TEAMWORK has the highest contribution in predicting remote employee engagement, while COMPETITON-focused cultures do not significantly contribute to remote employee engagement. As one can see, “a shared responsibility for culture throughout an organization involves different people and functions within the organization playing different roles in developing and maintaining the culture” (Yohn, 2021: p. 3) . However, when culture and/or “the way we do things” is enhanced and/or achieved by teamwork, the engagement of the remote employee is found to be positively impacted.
Both Human Capital professionals and organizational management can embrace these new findings and strengthen their remote employee engagement efforts and overall commitment during and after this COVID-19 pandemic period. It is suggested that consideration is given to the opportunities to enhance their teamwork activities and minimize their competitive tendencies as key aspects of their culture. Such opportunistic activities may include those found in effective teamwork, e.g., clear leadership, defined goals, clear roles, and responsibilities, open communications, collaboration, and trust. Further, as noted in the results, a management culture imbued with competition is not conducive to remote employee engagement. It may well foster a work environment fraught with animosity, anxiety, burnout, and turnover (Sull et al., 2022) . Thus, this research can be helpful in assisting management in identifying and pinpointing the problem in their workplace culture and mounting a viable plan for resolution.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by funding from Saurage Research, Inc., a global research organization located in Houston, TX that specializes in innovative, hybrid research strategies that produce insights for a client list that includes numerous Fortune 500 companies.