A Review of Cross-Cultural Training Research: The Past 10 Years and Implications for Moving Forward ()
1. Introduction
Cross-cultural environment birthed diverse phenomena, which caused numerous researches on culture, expatriate’s assignments, and cross-cultural communication to arise. From the 1960s to 1970s, there were ongoing researches addressing cross-cultural related topics. The 1980s saw the research dwindle. In the 1990s the increasing globalization of the economy and the movement of people across border drove a surge in CCT research. An Increasing number of research covering the issues of transnational managers have been done because very few multinational corporations (MNC’s) have integrated cross-cultural programs in their management practices for managers going for a foreign assignment. The inaction toward this issue and the fact that scant progress has been made in the field of cross-cultural training show that further research is required. Besides the controversies regarding the goal, the content, effectiveness, implementation and process of cross-cultural training remain (Baumgarten, 1995). Cross-cultural training aims to help expatriate managers get comfortable in their working place therefore it strengthens their ability to apprehend diverse cultural perspectives and reinforce the cross-cultural adjustment of the expatriates (Caligiuri et al., 2005). There are, however, very few reviews that compile the body of work covering the subject of CCT research and most of them are not quite recent. Therefore, the present study aims to provide a current state of art through a comprehensive background to understand and synthesize the existing knowledge and also to emphasize the need for further research. Therefore, the purpose of this review is threefold. First, present a thorough overview and analysis of CCT research by discussing four major topics across the field. Second, examine findings from researches that have been published over the past ten years. Finally, provide suggestion for future researches. This article will propose a thorough literature review of cross-cultural training and then it will examine 4 major topics: cross-cultural training effectiveness, the cross-cultural theoretical framework, cross-cultural training programs, and cross-cultural training methodology. In order to discover publications relevant to our topic for the current review, many databases have been looked into and keyword searches have been run. For example: Cross-cultural training, expatriate adjustment, cross-cultural training effectiveness, cross-cultural theoretical framework, cross-cultural training programs, and cross-cultural training practices. Only peer-reviewed articles were chosen.
2. Cross-Cultural Training
Early in the 1960s CCT was refered to as cross-cultural or intercultural orientation programs (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). CCT was the view as practices of preparing people to live in another culture. Cross-cultural orientation was described by (Paige, 1986) as training programs geared to give people the abilities to live and work overseas as well as to prepare for their return to their home country after completion of their foreign assignments. In response to the increasing globalization (Brislin et al., 1983) stated that it is needed to train people for the sake of helping them adapt to the multicultural environment and labour force thereby they can successfully work in a foreign context. (Brislin & Yoshida, 1994) CCT as some formal attempts to equip individuals for a more productive interpersonal encounter and job effectiveness whenever they engage with people from a different cultural background, CCT has been considered as an efficient means to promote communication, and business across nations (Ashamalla & Crocitto, 1997). According to (Baumgarten, 1995; Stewart & Mendenhall, 1990) CCT aims to enhance the probability of success for transnational managers in their foreign assignments. CCT has expanded over the years, by way of illustration CCT programs are being integrated into organization’s training programs in the shape of multicultural training (Littrell et al., 2006). CCT programs are also meant to draw cultural awareness of host national workers in order to strengthen their interaction skills with team members having different cultural backgrounds. CCT is used to train individuals within one’s country to deal with people from different cultural backgrounds (Bhawuk, 1996). Researchers (Baumgarten, 1995; Bennett et al., 2000) have established three elements as being indicators of success as following: personal adjustment, professional effectiveness, and interpersonal adjustment. Thereby, CCT should be designed to give transnational managers the abilities required for a successful cross-cultural adjustment, effective business performance and productive cross-cultural interaction.
3. Cross-Cultural Training Effectiveness
(Stewart & Mendenhall, 1990; Tung, 1988) stated that CCT is needed to enhance the probability of success for expatriates’ managers. Despite this, administrating cross-cultural programs remains a struggle for MNC’s (Abbott et al., 2006). Which can be one of the reasons of the high percentage of expatriates’ managers failure. However, (Selmer et al., 1998) is one of the scant empirical researches available that substantiate CCT effectiveness. Also, the most cited meta-analysis driven by (Stewart & Mendenhall, 1990) ascertains the effectiveness of CCT to develop the capacities pertaining to the interaction with host country members, the maintenance of oneself and the silks required for cultural awareness. To conduct this research 29 studies were surveyed. Studies conducted in Japanese MNC’s showed that expatriates who received cross-cultural training had a higher success rate in comparison with expatriates who did not receive such training (Hogan & Goodson, 1990). Twenty-first-century researchers enhanced the importance of CCT. CCT is considered as an effective tool to enhance the abilities required for transnational managers to work efficiently in an unfamiliar host country. Kuo (2012) reported that the achievement of corporate performance goals and multicultural policy objectives can be achieved through cross-cultural training. Effective cross-cultural training broadens trainees’ knowledge, inspires them to recognize the advantages of cultural variety and cross-cultural competency for themselves and their organizations, and improves their ability and capacity to deal with diversity. In the same perspective (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011) commented that cross-cultural training programs offered to employees and their families by MNCs are of vital importance in order to run effective international operations (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011). Furthermore creating cross-cultural training programs could benefit the company and its employees (Qin & Baruch, 2010). CCT gives added value to the firms and their employees (Cheema, 2012; Joshua-Gojer, 2012; Polón & Mcintire, 2017; Qin & Baruch, 2010). Recent researches have also covered the impact CCT on cross-cultural adjustment (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011; Hsiu-Ching & Mu-Li, 2012). (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011) investigated the influence of CCT on expatriates’ adjustment. With regard to the significant positive relationships observed between CCT and all the facets of expatriates’ adjustment, the results support the claims that CCT helps facilitate all the aspects of expatriates’ adjustment. Although researches have generally agreed that CCT is effective, there is a lack of conclusive answer towards its effectiveness, and the lack of adequate empirical studies is one of the major reasons.
4. Cross-Cultural Theoretical Framework
This section will discuss theoretical frameworks that have been developed by researchers. Various theoretical frameworks have been proposed to answer why cross-cultural training is effective. The endeavors to bring a theoretical framework pertaining to CCT started with an understanding of cross-cultural interaction. Cross-cultural interaction drives people from diverse cultural background together. Individuals with different behaviors, beliefs, way of thinking and interpreting the world are bring together (Triandis, Vassiliou, & Tanaka, 1972). Thus CCT allows people to learn the skills that help facilitate cross-cultural interaction. It became therefore, important to comprehend how individuals learn to interact with each other’s, but also how what they have learned is transferred during interaction (Bochner, 1982). Cognitive learning theory supports that learning process takes place in the psychological processing of information and also the decision of a responding behavior. On the other hand, behavioral theorist stated that learning is based on behaviors and experiences. Social Learning Theory is the synthesis of cognitive and behavioral learning theories.
4.1. Social Learning Theory
(Bandura, 1977) social learning theory demonstrates that the process of learning is affected by observation and experience. (Bandura, 1977) illustrated that social learning theory contains four major components: Attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives. Attention: the individual should pay attention to the behaviour for it to be shaped. And this process is induced through different aspects such as the status of the model, its attractiveness, the analogy of the model, the frequency of the model. Retention: indicates a process whereby the observer memorizes the behaviour that was witnessed. The observer should be able to remember the modeled behavior. in this process two systems are engaged, the imaginal system and the verbal system. Reproduction: This element implies that the observer tries to reproduce the modeled behavior. it requires the physical and mental skills of the subject to replicate the witnessed behavior. Incentives: this last component can derive from the individuals, or from the environment. (Bandura, 1977) based on empirical studies stated that incentives are much more significant in the choice of the behavior to be imitated. If there is no reason to imitate the behavior then the process of attention, retention, and reproduction will be more challenging. This stage illustrates the impact of goals on one’s behavior. (Bandura, 1977) with regard to the motivational process of learning identified efficacy expectation and outcome expectation are two types of prospects that motivate the observer. (Bandura, 1977) illustrate that the learning process can be done using symbolic processes but also involving the observer through practices. The implementation of social learning theory to CCT, gives people to learn modeled behavior from the country of destination thus they are able to discern what behaviour can be adequate. Expatriate managers have the skills required to respond during interactions with the appropriate behavior (Stewart & Mendenhall, 1990).
4.2. The U Curve of Adjustment Theory
In regard to expatriates cross-cultural adjustment (Church, 1982) stated that the U curve of adjustment theory can explain how cross-cultural training is effective. The U curve of adjustment has been introduced by (Lysgaard, 1955). The theory argued that the sojourner adjustment is subjected to time and contours a U shape. (Lysgaard, 1955) highlighted 4 stages during the adaptation process such as the honeymoon period, crisis period, adjustment period, and biculturalism period. (Stewart & Mendenhall, 1991) illustrated that within the first six months, the sojourner is captivated by the new surroundings, and the adjustment is easy. At this stage the individuals are optimistic and can handle the cultural differences, this phase is called the honeymoon period. The second phase named the crisis period relates to a stage of confusion. The misunderstandings in that foreign environment create frustrations, and the sojourner is unhappy. This occurs after six to heighten months. In the third stage, the adjustment period or recovery stage, during this period the sojourners start dealing with the differences. The individuals feel more comfortable and relaxed. Finally, the last stage is biculturalism or mastery level; at this stage, the sojourners are integrated into the foreign culture. The individuals can cope effectively with the differences in the foreign country. (Stewart & Mendenhall, 1991) suggested that CCT to be effective in cross-cultural adjustment should be conducted throughout the different phases of the U curve of adjustment. However, the U curve theory has brought also some criticisms. (Ward et al., 2001) stated that the U curve model of adjustment should be rejected, and also recommended practitioners stop using the curve.
4.3. The Culture Shock Theory
(Paige, 1993) the anthropologist Cora Dubois introduced the notion of “culture shock” to make reference to the discomfort faced by anthologists when crossing cultural boundaries. The term culture shock has been expanded in 1954 by kalervo Oberg to all individuals who crossed boundaries to a new foreign environment (Oberg, 1954). (Oberg, 1960) described culture shock as an illness afflicting people who live in a new foreign environment. Culture shock is defined as a process throughout the individual that goes through transition, adaptation, and adjustment within a foreign environment for a period of time while facing confusion, frustrations, and stress (Church, 1982). In an attempt to explicate the causes of culture shock, several approaches have been established. The cognitive approach posits that the ability of people to make the right attribution about the cultural background of the new environment is one of the key elements in cross-cultural adjustment. People fail by using one’s own culture as a standard to interpret, judge and behave in the foreign environment (Triandis, 1990). The behavioral approach posits that culture shock takes place for the reason that people do not comprehend the systems of rewards and punishments related to the spoken and unspoken behavior (Anderson, 1994). (Adler, 1975) regarding the phenomenological approach of culture shock, argued that is a crossing phase that takes the individuals from a condition of low-self and cultural awareness to a condition of high-self and cultural awareness. Culture shock occurs since individuals are no longer able to take their own culture to manifest important elements of their personality in the foreign environment. The last approach, the socio-psychological approach refers to the social adjustment of the sojourners which relates to the ability of individuals to interact with hosts, and also the psychological adjustment which stands for the individuals’ sense of wellbeing (Ward, 1991).
Several theoretical constructs related to culture shock have been proposed as framework to design and draw out the effectiveness of CCT. Befus suggested that CCT programs should be designed to tackle the issues related to culture shock (Befus, 1998 cited by Littrell & Salas, 2005). CCT will equip the sojourners with the required skills to deal with the different problems related to culture shock whether psychological or social issues. The theory of the met expectation has been proposed in an effort to explicate the effectiveness of CCT in expatriate performance during their foreign assignments. The theory of met expectation postulates that the individual makes their initial expectations before leaving their country, the more the expectancies are consistent with the actual job condition, and the higher is the individuals’ satisfaction and adjustment (Porter & Steers, 1973). (Feldman, 1976; Louis, 1980) stated that inaccurate expectations generate post-departure issues. The expectations can be created through CCT. These initial expectations could, therefore, impact expatriates’ adjustment. (Stewart, 1991) concluded that accurate expectations were associated to higher job performance in comparison to inaccurate expectations. (Wanous et al., 1992) results of their meta-analysis have shown a significant positive relationship between met expectations and higher work performance, work satisfaction and commitment to the organization.
4.4. Sequential Model of Adjustment
It’s a model developed by (Selmer et al., 1998). The sequential model of adjustment implies that CCT should be a progressive process starting from pre-departure all over the line to the post-arrival stage. The content of CCT program and the time of its administration should be according to the adjustment phases (Selmer et al., 1998). Sequential training would give continuous structured training corresponding to a given stage of the adjustment process (Selmer et al., 1998). Pre-departure training, training at the ethnocentric phase, training at the culture-shock phase, and training at the conformist phase are the four steps of sequential CCT propounded by (Selmer et al., 1998).
4.4.1. Pre-Departure Training
Before the departure, trainees do not have much knowledge to recognize major issues in the foreign culture. At this stage, the training content should provide information related to the initial adjustment issues. The trainee will be informed of the incongruence between personal behavior and host country practices thus reduce cultural stress (Selmer et al., 1998).
4.4.2. Training in the Ethnocentric Phase
Summer defined ethnocentrism as the “…view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.” (Sumner, 1906: p. 13). After the arrival in the host-country, sojourners go through frantic acclimatization and complex socialization (Selmer, 1995). Ethnocentrism is appended to misconceptions about the behavior of people from different cultural backgrounds (Gudykunst, 2003). Post-arrival training can help to build and strengthen cultural awareness and therefore help to reduce ethnocentrism.
4.4.3. Training in the Culture-Shocked Phase
At this stage, the training should enhance cognitive restructuring by giving interpretation of factual cross-cultural experiences (Selmer et al., 1998). The training should introduce new behaviors which can grow into interpersonal effective job performance. Experiential training is an effective approach in enhancing the applicability of behaviour in the foreign culture (Brislin et al., 1983). Expatriates should be trained on how to assort the experiences they are facing in the foreign country.
4.4.4. Training in the Conformist Phase
The focus at this stage of the training should be put on “learning by doing as the host-culture members do” (Selmer et al., 1998). The expatriates have less confidence into the appropriateness of their new behaviours. The training should be design to provide experience of interaction between expatriates and host nationals through structured and unstructured situation (Selmer et al., 1998). The immediate applicability of the modeled behavior into factual situations reinforces the expatriates’ interaction skills. Most of the above theories pertaining to CCT have not been backed up by empirical researches, therefore practitioners have to be cautious when using them to design and evaluate CCT programs.
5. Awareness of Culture and Cultural Differences
In a cross-cultural interaction, people are not aware of the impact of their own cultural when they interact with individuals from a foreign cultural origin. The training should therefore highlight the importance of cultural awareness. (Bennett, 1986) supported that people who understand their own behavior is more likely to be effective in their foreign assignments. What is acceptable in one’s culture can be inappropriate in a foreign culture. Through the training, the expatriates should learn how to acknowledge their own culture and appreciate the variances with foreign cultures (Befus, 1988). Being aware of these differences is a step forward for an effective intercultural interaction.
5.1. Knowledge
(Cushner, 1994) stated that training should provide the knowledge required for survival in a foreign culture. Training should also include specific knowledge judged important in the host culture (Brislin & Yoshida, 1993). The knowledge of the appropriate and inappropriate behavior with respect to host culture helps to reduce culture shock experiences.
5.2. Emotional Challenges
In a cross-cultural environment, when individuals’ behavioral frame of reference is challenged, they can experience frustration, confusion, or sometimes anger (Brislin & Yoshida, 1993). The inability of expatriates to cope with these emotions can give rise to mental and physical issues. Researchers have developed multiple modules which offer guidance to run complex role-playing experiences in order to submit trainees to emotional challenges. (Gudykunst, 1983) supported that role-playing is an effective method to introduce expatriates to emotional challenges. However (Gudykunst, 1983) recommended practitioners to use it with caution. The training should be conducted by experienced trainers. (Brislin & Yoshida, 1993) regarding to O’byrne and Pederson’s role-playing modules suggested that it should be used only after a thorough study of the materials and that solely experienced trainers in role-playing should conduct the training (Brislin & Yoshida, 1993).
5.3. Actual Behavior
All the above-mentioned steps are necessary but not sufficient for a complete evaluation. With the help of the training, the expatriates can be aware of cultural differences, and they can have the ability to discern the appropriate behaviors in respect to host culture, however, the transfer of the actual behavior into the interaction is the key to achieve a successful cross-cultural interaction. (Brislin & Yoshida, 1993) suggested that appropriate behaviors should be identified and practiced in CCT sessions. Kenneth Cushner, Carolina Freimanis and many other modules developers agreed that a successful cross-cultural interaction is based on the application of the appropriate behavior. (Brislin & Yoshida, 1993) propositions of the content of modules for cross-cultural training program is discussed below (see Table 1).
6. Cross-Cultural Training Methodology
Multiple researches have suggested the use of different approaches to integrating the skills and abilities required for expatriates into training programs.
6.1. Didactic Training
Didactic training is one of the most commonly used approaches, by Multinational Corporation providing CCT programs. Information-giving training offers reading literature about the host’s country culture and other didactic documents. The didactic approach provides trainees with actual information about the way of living and also the working conditions in the country of destination moreover, its highlight cultural variances (Bennett, 1986). Didactic or information-giving training aims to enhance the skills and abilities required for expatriate to understand the foreign culture. Didactic activities introduce expatriates to frameworks that can help them evaluate a new situation that will be experienced (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Morris & Robie, 2001). The most common activities of didactic training strategy are informal briefings, culture assimilators and traditional formal educational activities (Selmer, 1995).
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Table 1. Materials for training programs.
Source: based on (Brislin & Yoshida, 1993).
6.2. Cultural Awareness Training
Cultural awareness training aims to provide sojourners with knowledge about their culture so that they will mindful of the cultural variances between their home country and the country of destination (Befus, 1988). People who understand their own culture can most probably be effective in their overseas assignment (Bennett, 1986). CCT enables trainees to learn how to apply the teachings to improve their cross-cultural interaction effectiveness (Bennett, 1986).
6.3. Interaction Training
In interaction training, the future expatriate is sent to the host country to learn with the expatriate working at their position. Interaction training also referred to as “personal experience” support that incoming expatriates learn best from expatriates that there are about to replace (Befus, 1988). This type of training has more advantages because expatriates are able to learn from experienced expatriates through on and off-of-the-job activities (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005). (Lee & Larwood, 1983) stated that it can be a way to informally watch host members interacting and also observe the differences which can prepare expatriates for encounters with members of the host country.
6.4. The Experiential Approach
Experiential training mainly focuses on helping expatriates develop the required skills and abilities for effective job performance, for constructive interaction with host members and for developing cognitive competencies necessary to make correct attributions (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Morris & Robie, 2001). This type of training enhances communication abilities required for adjustment in a cross-cultural environment and also improves expatriates’ abilities to determine which behavior is appropriate to deal with a given situation (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Morris & Robie, 2001). One of the main goals of experiential training is to help “trainees to feel comfortable with the host nationals and to learn details about life in the host country” (Eschbach et al., 2001: p. 272). Major techniques used in experiential training are look-see visits, role-playing, intercultural workshops and simulations (Grove & Torbiörn, 1985; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996).
6.5. The Affective Approach
Defined as “the learning of information or skills via techniques that raise affective responses on the part of the trainee, which results in cultural insights” (Mendenhall et al., 1987: p. 339). The affective approach is grouped together with cultural assimilation, sensitivity training, attribution training and cultural awareness. Assimilation training helps individuals to interact and adjust with host country members (Fiedler et al., 1971). Attribution training helps trainees make isomorphic attribution and help them deal with discomfort experience in order to acculturate them to the host country culture (Eschbach et al., 2001). Language sensitivity and field training need to be added to cultural simulation training (Hsiu-Ching & Mu-Li, 2012). Sensitivity training enhances trainees’ ability to understand their own culture and to be aware of the culture difference by illustrating a behaviour that is opposite to their own culture (Tung, 1981). Although, CCT aims to teach expatriate cultural differences (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000) stated that it does not necessarily provide trainees with specific training about the host culture. Therefore (Ronen, 1986) stated that when the expatriates are supposed to be extensively interacting with host nationals during the foreign assignment, sensitivity training is more appropriate.
6.6. Language Training
Language barriers can be challenging for expatriates (Ashamalla, 1998) stated that expatriates’ CCT must be completed with language training to facilitate their living and working conditions (Selmer, 1999) that expatriates who interact with host nationals endure less frustration related to the culture difference however interactions require language proficiency. For expatriates that are fluent in the local language, the risk of misunderstanding is significantly lower (Hsiu-Ching & Mu-Li, 2012). Language proficiency facilitates communication between expatriates and host country nationals moreover, it increases the understanding of the host country’s culture (Wang & Tran, 2012). (Fish, 2005) stated that when CCT programs propose language training, the expatriates’ adjustment is more likely to occur without major difficulties.
All these beforehand mentioned theories, recommended the adoption of various strategies to incorporate the knowledge, and skills necessary for expatriates into training programs. Several diverse strategies have been proposed, however, they share the same goal which is to facilitate expatriate adjustment and enhance their effectiveness in a foreign assignment. These methods are not mutually exclusive.
6.7. Mode of Delivery
Researchers have developed multiple approaches and proposed several techniques and mechanism for practitioners to effectively deliver CCT. (Littrell & Salas, 2005) stated that companies that have experienced success delivering CCT programs used more than one specific technique. (Stewart & Mendenhall, 1990) supported that integrated program models are more effective in respect to cross-cultural training delivery. (Bennett et al., 2000) recommended that CCT programs must be adjusted to trainees’ needs, and their learning styles because they differ depending on the cultural background. Several methods such as critical incidents, case studies, videos, role-plays, simulations exercise, lectures, demonstrations, can be used for training. And also, on the other hand, job training techniques refer to technique to prepare expatriates for work-related responsibilities (Treven, 2003).
Duration and Timing
Most organizations provide CCT before the departure, sometimes after arrival in the host country or combine pre-departure and post-departure training in the program. Researches have highlighted that post-departure training is rarely conducted (Selmer et al., 1998). (Brislin & Yoshida, 1994) illustrated that most of the organization practice two to three days of training programs before departure, despite the fact that much longer programs are available. The pre-departure training helps expatriates develop cultural awareness about the foreign culture they are about to encounter. It gives the expatriate and family members an understanding of the foreign culture, and what to expect and allows them to create realistic expectancies. The ideal time to provide pre-departure training is three to five weeks before the departure so that the trainee does not forget as if it was conducted too far in advance (Bennett et al., 2000). Post-departure is the most significant stage, as expatriates start to interact with host members and begin to learn how to adjust their behavior to the host’s country (Shay et al., 2004). (Black et al., 1999) post-arrival training is important because the expatriates come into encounters with actual reality, they can bring actual issues to the training. At this stage, the expatriates can easily learn and transfer the teachings into real-life situations. (Shay et al., 2004) reported that post-departure training is limited to one to two months for expatriates living and working adjustment. However, the debate remains on which way is the most effective, pre-departure or post-departure. (Bennett et al., 2000) stated that “a sequenced series of pre-departure and post-arrival would therefore be ideal”. However, training should not only be provided pre-departure and post-departure but also after expatriates return to their country.
7. Findings from the Past Ten Years Research Papers
In an attempt to highlight the effectiveness of CCT, multiple researches have been made from the 1980s to the 90s, as presented in the throughout literature review. The 21st century also followed the trend. Findings of the more recent published paper will also be presented in this section. (Wang & Tran, 2012) have investigated CCT in term of pre-departure and post departure, and language training to assess its effectiveness in expatriates’ adjustment. The empirical research study showed a significant influence between pre-departure and post departure, language training and the degree of general adjustment, interaction and work adjustment of expatriates. (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011) exploring the impact of CCT on expatriates adjustment through general and specific experiential and conventional training methods found out that CCT facilitates all the facets of expatriates adjustment. These results being consistent with his other study conducted on the same topics (Okpara & Kabongo, 2017). (Qin & Baruch, 2010) researches conducted to examine the impact of CCT in a Chinese company found out that CCT did not have a direct influence on expatriates adjustment and career. Moderators as family package, free choice, protean career, psychological contract were positively related to job performance, career success and job satisfaction. (Wurtz, 2014)’s research has also shown that pre-departure training was not a contributor to job performance, but post-departure training referred as in-country CCT was of profound relevance to professional performance. (Cheema, 2012) instigated research to explore the strategies and techniques of CCT before departure to the host country and also to establish a consensus on the most significant for a successful training program. The research found out seven categories including 61 items that should be addressed for an effective CCT program. (Hsiu-Ching & Mu-Li, 2012) qualitative study approach of CCT effectiveness, uncovered that language training and post-arrival training were positively correlated to expatriate adjustment and job-related performance. However, (El Mansour & Wood, 2010) investigating the nature and the content of CCT provided to USA and European expatriates working in Morocco, have also examined the aspects not covered by CCT programs and the similarities and differences between the two delivered CCT programs. The findings of this qualitative research illustrated that most of expatriates did not receive language training. The larger part of the training was relative to work assignments instead of culture or language training. Family members of expatriates did not receive CCT. However, culture shock did not seem to have a major impact on expatriates’ adjustment. Interactions with host members and expatriates workmates played a part in expatriates’ cultural adjustment. Besides, the above empirical researches, theoretical analyses have been made. (Polón & Mcintire, 2017) from reviewing theoretical frameworks and analysis concluded that almost all of them indicate suggested CCT to have, at the bare minimum, a positive influence on the improvement of adjustment process in the host culture, however, the dissent remains on CCT ability to improve actual work performance. (Lenartowicz et al., 2014) have argued that factual CCT method’s effectiveness is limited in the transfer of cultural knowledge, considering that very little attention is paid to transfer of tacit cultural knowledge. The researchers provided four sets of CCT methods to improve CCT effectiveness. (Joshua-Gojer, 2012) have reviewed CCT in terms of expatriates success and failure and also its effectiveness in increasing expatriates performance. The review reported the lack of empirical evidence and the significant need of synthesis of literature and news directions pertaining to the field of CCT.
8. Implication for Future Research
The majority of the empirical findings have shown that there exists, no clear conclusion regarding CCT research. Thus, there is much scope left to be covered. To begin with, most articles focus on expatriates adjustment, expatriates performance, and pre-departure training. Cross-culture training effectiveness can be influenced by various factors. Researchers can investigate the implication of the length of the program, the intensiveness, the design of the training, the cultural distance between the home country and the host country, the quality of the trainer, the selection of the trainee, learning style, and training mode. Expatriates family’s adjustment which seems to be an important factor in expatriate performance should also be examined. Variables that influence CCT effectiveness and expatriates performance should also be subjected to study. Furthermore, most of the studies pertaining to CCT effectiveness do not include the five criteria suggested by (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996) for a reliable cross-cultural research. The results of the articles cannot be generalized to a larger population due to the small size sample of most of the studies and the cross-sectional nature of the study design. Longitudinal researches are needed. Moreover, researchers must conduct quantitative researches to assess the ability of CCT to influence organization outcomes in order to reach a conclusive answer with respect to the relationship between CCT and expatriates performance (Littrell et al., 2006). Qualitative researches are as much needed to understand the difficulties faced by expatriates in their foreign assignments. The researches can cover the reasons underpinning a successful CCT program and also the reasons why it fails in some cases. Researchers should try to understand the perception of the trainee throughout all the process to identify when he/she is more prompt to learn and “learn what” in order to adjust the timing to the training content. With most of the researches on Chinese firms, American or Japanese organization, researchers should also investigate CCT in a context of expatriation in Europe and Africa However, disconnect between the existing literature and the results of the articles strengthens the need for empirical evidence, to test the theories and provide directions. Very few researches have been conducted to test empirically the components of the theories (Joshua-Gojer, 2012). Finally, there are very few reviews that have focus on condensing literature pertaining to CCT content, design, theories, and practices. More synthesis of literature and new directions are needed to have a much wider existing literature, and to know the current state of cross-cultural training research.
9. Conclusion
Cross-cultural training research has evolved over the past decades. The current review illustrates that there have been multiple attempts to understand and explain the underpinning reasons for CCT effectiveness. Theoretical frameworks have been proposed to explain how it works, and quantitative and qualitative research has been conducted to test empirically the claims pertaining to CCT effectiveness. However, the lack of conclusive answers leaves researches with more work to be done. Moreover, very few researches condensed CCT research, which makes it difficult for researchers to know the current state of the research. Thus, this article aims to contribute to the existing literature with regard to CCT by providing a thorough literature review of the field, and presenting the findings that have been made over the past ten years in doing that the implication for further researches became clear. This review has addressed CCT effectiveness, CCT theoretical framework, CCT programs, CCT methodology, and the more recent findings to illustrate their implication for future studies. However, CCT remains a field with much more left to be explored.