Prediction of Perceived Parental Styles in Childhood to Emotional Intelligence as Ability in Late Adolescence ()
1. Introduction
Concerning the relationship between the parents and their children, two types of interactions have appeared: a child-centered interaction or parent-centered interaction. The former one refers to the parent’s concern and awareness of their children and their needs, while the latter one refers to the parents’ more concern with their affairs than their children’s affairs. The children are affected by those types of interactions negatively or positively according to the parental styles that reflect their orientations in the socialization and define the dominant interaction type between them and their children.
The researchers paid attention to the relationship between the parents and their children as they are one the most significant social relationships affecting offspring’s personality in childhood and their subsequent developmental phases (Sadiq & Khatoon, 2012; Wang & Cai, 2017). The studies referred to the positive relationship between the parental warmth and children’s high levels of emotional, social adjustment and school achievement (Ruberry et al., 2017). Argela & Walker (2013) pointed out that parental styles were good indicators of the family context, and greatly affected children’s development all over their lives. The sequential study conducted by (Bosquet & Egeland 2006) stressed the relationship between the parents’ use of positive treatment styles in childhood and the appearance of positive emotional features in adolescence.
Late adolescence is too significant as during which the adolescent is prepared to face more life challenges and adjust to the requirements of work and marriage in adulthood. (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2006) showed that adjustment in the adolescence reflected one’s adjustment in childhood and affected the adjustment in adulthood. Moreover, the cognitive, social, and emotional developments in these phases are affected by the perceived parental styles, and the cognitive development in both childhood and adolescence depended on the emotional development in both phases. They emphasized that adolescence was the phase of identity development, and this development largely depended on emotional operations.
Salovey (2001) showed that one’s ability to copy and adjust to life challenges depended on one’s full employment of his emotional and mental abilities, the success of interpersonal relationships was based on one’s ability to set out a logical basis for his emotional experiences, as well as his emotional information and emotionally adaptable behaviors. Lone et al. (2013) referred to that emotional intelligence (EI) in adolescence predicted offspring’s social adjustment.
Emotional intelligence (as ability and as a trait) facilitated the adolescent’s personal and social adjustment and enabled him to efficiently copy many psychological problems (Cobos-Sanchez et al., 2017). The studies conducted by Brackett et al. (2004) showed that there was a positive relationship between emotional intelligence as ability and offspring’s ability to form positive social relationships in adolescence, there was also a negative relationship between emotional intelligence as ability and the adolescent’s behavioral delinquency.
As emotional intelligence was formed in a social context through which the children learned how to control their emotions, understood, and explained others’ emotions (Zeidner et al., 2009), the family context & perceived parental styles significantly affected children’s ability to acquire and develop emotional intelligence.
Since Salovey and his colleagues addressed emotional intelligence concept, more researches have been conducted on the relationship between this concept and many psychological and socio psychological variables. In parental socialization, the researchers have manipulated the relationship between parental styles and emotional intelligence as a trait according to the assumption that it was a typical performance supposed to be related to the parental styles which considered as typical performance also. As several theoretical assumptions pointed out, parental socialization affected children’s temperamental (typical) performance and cognitive (maximum) performance, so, the current study paid attention to the relationship between the perceived parental styles in childhood and emotional intelligence as ability in late adolescence.
The cognitive social theory assumed that the social context, especially the parental treatment in childhood contributed to forming many of their children’s personal characteristics, cognitive abilities and social skills, and this context could vary with the different cultural frames (Wang, 2018). Salovey, Caruso & Myers, 2004 referred to the role of the parental emotional treatment in childhood in forming emotional intelligence in this phase and its subsequent developmental phases.
Morris et al. (2007) emphasized the most important role of the parental treatment in childhood in developing children’s ability to regulate their emotions in their subsequent developmental phases.
Padilla-Walker (2008) showed that positive emotional socialization in childhood was positively related to offspring’s positive emotions in adolescence. In spite of these previous theoretical assumptions, there was a remarkable scarcity in the studies on the relationship between the parental treatment and emotional intelligence as ability in offspring. Most studies were interested in the relationship between the parental treatment and offspring’s emotional intelligence as a trait.
As some researchers referred to the existence of differences between oriental and western cultures in terms of the relationship between the parental styles and offspring’s emotional intelligence (Nishikawa & Sundbom, 2009), it was necessary to find out the nature of this relationship in oriental culture in general and Egyptian culture in private.
2. Concepts’ Definition
The researchers prepared several definitions for emotional intelligence. Theses definitions were varied according to its theoretical approach; whether the mixed one or that of the mental ability. According to the definitions of the former one based on the mixed approach, Bar, on in 1997 defined it as “a set of non-cognitive skills, abilities, characteristics, and competences that affected one’s ability to copy the environmental demands and stress” (Crowne, 2013). Goleman in 1995 defined it as “the ability to recognize our feelings and that of the others, the ability to control the impulses, delay the satisfaction of the needs, motivation, perseverance, hope and optimism” (Kemper, 1999). These definitions were criticized by the supporters of defining emotional intelligence as a mental ability. They pointed out that emotional intelligence was not a trait as for example, the perseverance, hope, and optimism were not abilities, but they were traits. Defining EI as a trait led to confusion between it and the non-cognitive skills and competences as they were inconsistent components for defining EI. These components were: 1) The awareness of emotions, assertiveness, self-actualization, and independence; 2) The empathy, intrapersonal relationships, and social responsibility; 3) Organizing the stress, solving the problems, and testing the reality and flexibility; 4) Coping and controlling the impulses (Gangopadhyay, 2008).
Concerning the definitions of the second one; based on the mental ability approach, Salovey and his colleagues provided a definition for emotional intelligence “it is the ability to realize, evaluate and express the emotions, the ability to create the emotions that facilitate the thinking process, to understand emotions and emotional cognition, and the ability to organize the emotions to strengthen the emotional growth” (Salovey, 2001).
The current study adopted the previous definition of emotional intelligence as ability as it was consistent with our assumption of the concept as a cognitive ability, and it clearly contained the components of this concept.
In that regard, (Mayer et al., 2002) indicate that the previous definition of emotional intelligence as ability contained the following sub-abilities: 1) Recognizing the emotions; the ability to find out and decode symbols of the emotions in the faces, pictures, sounds, cultural implications and one’s ability to determine his emotions. 2) The use of emotions; the ability to exploit the emotions to facilitate different cognitive activities such as thinking process and problems solving. 3) Understanding the emotions; the ability understand the emotional language and the complex relationship between the emotions. 4) Organizing the emotions; the ability to organize one’s emotions and with the others.
The current study provides a procedural definition for emotional intelligence as “it is the most correct response made by most respondents on the items of emotional intelligence scale as a mental ability”.
Regarding the parental styles, Mussen defined it as “the behavioral types, attitudes and values used by the parents to define how to react with their children”. Trishala & Kiran defined it as “the psychological construct embodied in standard strategies used by the parents in bringing up their children” (Trishala & Kiran, 2015).
Darling & Steinberg pointed out that, the parental context was characterized with three dimensions: the parental goals, parental practices, and parental styles. The parental styles were the emotional environmental through which the parents brought up their children. It was the factor mediating the relationship between the parental practices and developmental consequences (Argyriou et al., 2016).
Eisenberg et al. (1998) demonstrated that, there were three fields through which the parental styles and their relations with children’s emotional development were addressed: the parents’ reactions children’s emotions, the parents’ discussion of these emotions, and the parents’ expression of their emotions. The parents used different styles to express their satisfaction and support their children’s emotions, or they used punitive styles to help their children control their emotions. The parents’ emotional socialization in childhood was related to children’s ability in adolescence and adulthood to copy stressful emotional situations and solve the social problems.
Some researchers showed that the parental socialization varied with different cultures; hence, the cultural frame should be included as a factor affecting the relationship between the perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence (Teo et al., 2017).
In terms of the importance of investigate the relationship between the perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence as ability, the perceived parental styles were defined as “types of interaction between the parents and their children that reflected their attitudes towards the socialization and definitely perceived by the offspring”. There was also a procedural definition “what the offspring perceive in late adolescence regarding the parental styles used by the parents in their socialization in childhood”.
3. Problem of the Study
From the abovementioned, it can be concluded that, the family context especially the parental styles used in childhood, play a prominent role in forming emotional intelligence as ability the offspring have in adolescence. Therefore, the main problem of the current study is “Do the perceived parental styles in childhood predict emotional intelligence as ability the offspring have in late adolescence?”
The Previous Studies
Many researchers showed that, the perceived parental styles related to children’s adjustment and positive behavior, emotional intelligence was an indicator of this positive behavior (Alegre & Benson, 2010; Richaud et al., 2013). They also investigated the relationship between some of these styles and emotional intelligence in different developmental phases such as: rejection and independence (Rowe et al., 2015), attachment (Hamarta et al., 2009) domination, (Aslani et al., 2015), democratic and tolerant styles (Mitrofan, 2011). The previous studies stressed the relationship between the parental styles and emotional intelligence as a trait.
Alegre & Benson (2010) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between the perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence as a trait. The study contained (329) male and female students in New Jersey and Pennsylvania universities (18 - 22 years old, 45% female). The perceived parental styles scale was applied and contained the following secondary scales: the parental availability estimated by the style of warmth/love, the parental discipline estimated by the punishment style/following the rules. Trait Meta-MoodScale for Children (TMMS-C) was applied, this scale was developed through emotional intelligence scale prepared by Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palafai in 1995. This scale was designed based on Salovey-Mayer emotional intelligence model defined as a concept referring to the integration between three components: paying attention to the feelings, clarifying the feelings, and modifying the mood. The study concluded that, the parental availability predicted paying attention and clarifying the feelings but did not predict modifying or accepting the feelings.
Gardner et al. (2011) conducted a study aiming to investigate the relationship between the family context (the family cohesiveness and conflict) in childhood as perceived by the offspring in adolescence and emotional intelligence as a trait and as ability (n = 97 male and female university students, 80 were female with average age 22.29). The findings showed positive relationship between the family characteristics and emotional intelligence as trait but not as ability.
Runcan & Goian (2014) examined the relationship between the parental practices and emotional intelligence as a trait in a sample of (161, 58.4% female, 17 - 20 years old). Wong Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WlEIS) was applied. This scale consisted of four components: self-emotional evaluation, others emotional evaluation, organizing the emotions and using the emotions. The perceived parental practices scale consisted of 2 components: the supportive practices and unsupportive practices. The supportive practices were warmth and independence, and the unsupportive practices were rejection, and oppression. The findings indicated a high positive correlation between warmth, independence and emotional intelligence male and female children have.
Al Qahtany’s study Al Qahtany (2014) aimed to examine the relationship between the perceived parental treatment styles and emotional intelligence as a trait. The study was conducted on (200 female students in 10, 11, 12 grades) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The study findings indicated a significant negative correlation between emotional intelligence and the following perceived parental treatment styles: intolerance, authoritarianism, inconsistency, and negligence.
Chandran & Nair (2015) examined the relationship between perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence as a trait in a sample of adolescents (16 - 17 years old). The perceived parental styles were evaluated by measuring the parental love and parental discipline. Emotional intelligence was measured through the following components: the personal efficiency that means one’s highly effective behaviors in different social situations, the self-efficiency that means one’s ability to maintain and develop his social relations, and the efficiency among the individuals that means one’s ability to get rid of the psychological conflicts and keep away from the tension sources. The findings showed that mother’s love was the most predictive variable of emotional intelligence.
Kilic et al. (2015) carried out a study aiming to find out the predictive variables of the perceived parental styles in childhood concerning children’s ability to organize their emotions in adolescence and early adulthood. The study was conducted on (170 men and women, 20 - 36 years old, 64.1% female). The findings demonstrated that parents’ use of the democratic attitude in socialization predicted offspring’s ability to organize their emotions in adolescence and early adulthood, while the protection attitude negatively predicted offspring’s ability to control their emotions in both phases.
Lekaviciene & Antiniene (2016) addressed the relationship between emotional intelligence as a trait and some family factors such as the relationships among the family members and the mutual relationships between the parents and offspring. The study was conducted on (1430 male and female university students and graduates, 17 - 27 years old). The scale of emotional intelligence as a trait was applied, and it consisted of three secondary scales: the facial expressions, emotional social intelligence, and personal relations situations. Then, some questions were raised on the nature of relationships between the respondents and their parents. The findings indicated that, the more the emotional relationships are based on mutual understanding of the feelings, the higher grades sons scored on the scale of emotional intelligence as a trait.
Argyriou et al. (2016) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between the perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence as a trait in a sample of adolescents (n = 127, 42.2% female, 15 - 19 years old). The findings showed that authoritarianism and tyranny positively predicted emotional intelligence as a trait.
From the abovementioned, the researchers have paid attention to the relationship between the perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence as a trait. There is a remarkable scarcity in dealing with the relationship between these styles and emotional intelligence as a mental ability, although there is a difference between the conceptual frame of emotional intelligence as a trait and emotional intelligence as a mental ability (see (Petrides, 2011)). Some studies (Salovey et al., 2003; Bradley et al., 2011) refer to low correlation between emotional intelligence as a trait and emotional intelligence as ability which mean they assess different domains. Some studies indicate to the correlation between the parental styles and sons’ cognitive development in childhood and its subsequent developmental phases (Nishikawa & Sundbom, 2009).
The current study investigates the perceived parental styles in childhood and its relation to emotional intelligence as ability in late adolescence. In that regard, there were very few studies dealing with the relationship between two variables. Asghari & Besharat (2011) conducted a study on the relationship between the perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence as ability. They addressed the following parental styles: indulgence, supporting the independence and warmth. The study was conducted on (352 university students; 142 male, 210 females with average age 18.39, 18 - 20 years old). The study concluded that there was a positive correlation between some perceived parental styles and emotional intelligence as total scores. The perceived warmth (especially the mother’s warmth) and supporting the independence predicted the changes in emotional intelligence and its sub-components (especially organizing the emotions).
4. Hypotheses of the Study
Based on the theoretical assumption and the findings of some studies dealing with the relationship between the parental treatment styles and emotional intelligence as a mental ability, the previous studies addressed a limited number of styles such as intolerance, authoritarianism, and permissiveness in their relation to emotional intelligence. The main hypothesis of the current study was formulated as follows: “the perceived parental styles in childhood predict emotional intelligence as ability in late adolescence”.
5. Methodology
The comparative correlational descriptive methodology was used; the procedures used were as follows:
1) The participants: the sample consisted of (177) participants with average age (20.93 ± 1.284, 18 - 25 years old), they are students in two, three, & four grades at faculty of Arts, Cairo university, psychology department, their numbers in each grade were (61, 57, 59) respectively (44.1% male). Table 1 demonstrated the percentages of the parents, educational level.
2) Tools: two scales were used in the study; the socialization scale to estimate the perceived parental styles in childhood, and the scale of emotional intelligence as ability:
a) The socialization scale, prepared by Zein Al Abdeen Darweesh, it had two copies, the first one for the father and the second one for the mother. This test estimated the perceived parental styles in childhood and its subsequent phases. The test consisted of (80) items estimated by (8) styles (10 items for each style), these styles were as follows:
1) Consultation;
2) Tolerance;
3) Acceptance;
4) Providing the proper protection;
5) Providing the reassurance;
6) Developing the self-independence in children;
7) Stressing the equality among the children;
8) Adherence to the principles and non-contradiction (Darweesh, 1989).
b) The scale of emotional intelligence as ability, it was a modified version of
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Table 1. The percentages of the parents, educational level.
the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test “MSCEIT”. These modifications were made by “Nasrah Mansour” according to the Arab and Egyptian cultural specificity and theoretical assumption of the concept made by Salovey and his colleagues. The scale consisted of (38) items distributed among (4) secondary scales; each of them had (2) tasks. These scales were as follows: 1) The perception of emotions scale, represented by (a, b), and consisted of (8) items measuring one’s ability to recognize and define different emotional expressions accurately. It implied (2) tasks: a) The task of faces; b) The task of pictures. 2) The thinking, facilitating emotions scale. It contained (10) items used to measure one’s ability to use his emotions positively in activating certain cognitive operations: thinking, inference, and solving the emotional problems. 3) The emotions understanding scale represented by (a, b) and consisted of (10) items used to measure the ability to understand the reasons of emotions, how one of them was formed through the other emotions, and how these emotions changed over time. It included two tasks: 1) The task of changes; 2) The task of mixtures. 4) The emotions management scale: it consisted of (10) items to measure some situations supporting the adaptable ways used by someone to organize his emotions. The respondent should replace the character existed in this situation and choose the suitable response for solving the problem. The suitable response was made according to the type of the selected strategy as there were (3) strategies: 1) The communication strategy of solving the discord; 2) The strategy of asking for help; 3) The strategy of avoiding or withdrawing from the discord. The test was correctified by the consensus way (Mansour et al., 2013).
3) The psychometric characteristics of scales
a) The reliability: the reliability of both scales was calculated by the test-retest, and Alpha Cronbach methods. Table 2 showed the stability results.
The results of Table 2 showed that, there were high-reliability in most parents’ treatment styles. (75%) of the father’s treatment tests were highly reliable through the test-retest and its internal consistency by Alpha Cronbach method. (65%) of the mother’s treatment tests were highly reliable through the test-retest, (75%) scored high internal consistency according to the results of Alpha Cronbach coefficient. The total reliability coefficients of emotional intelligence were high.
b) The validity: the construct validity of socialization scale was calculated by factor analyses for scale items. The analysis showed explicable (8) factors as the content of each factor in the parent’s treatment style was defined according to the content of items (Darweesh, 1989). In this study, the validity of emotional intelligence scale was calculated by calculating the correlation coefficients between its sub-components because of the scale novelty in the Egyptian culture. Table 3 showed the results of this validity.
The results of correlation coefficients in Table 3 showed a positive significant correlation among the components of emotional intelligence concept, referring to the content validity of the scale as it measured one concept.
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Table 2. The reliability results by the test-retest and Alpha Cronbach methods.
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Table 3. The correlation coefficients between the four sub-scales of emotional intelligence test and its both domains in total sample.
**0.1 ≥ P ≥ 0.05*.
4) Procedures: scales were applied on the university students in (2, 3, 4) grades, faculty of Arts, Psychology department, Cairo university. It was applied collectively (each grade respectively), each session lasted for hour and half. Emotional intelligence test was applied followed by applying the parental socialization styles scale in its both forms after making sure that the students understood the instructions, responded to all items, and registered their main data. It was applied in the first term of year (2017-2018) in October and November.
The statistical analysis: the study used simple linear correlation coefficient and (T test) to measure the differences between two groups, the gradual multiple regression analysis to find out the amount & the significance of predictive role of the perceived parental treatment styles (8 styles for father and mother) in emotional intelligence as total score.
The results: Table 4 showed the descriptive statistics of the study variables. Table 5 showed the correlations between the parental treatment styles and emotional intelligence as ability.
The results of Table 5 showed positive relationships between the parents’ treatment styles and emotional intelligence, excepting providing the proper protection style in father and mother.
Before analyzing the data of total sample, differences between both genders in emotional intelligence should be verified. The results were showed in Table 6.
The results of Table 6 showed that, there were significant differences between males and females in emotional intelligence. Hence, the results of whom were
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Table 4. The descriptive statistics of the study variables.
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Table 5. The correlations coefficients between the parental styles and emotional intelligence as ability.
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Table 6. The differences between both genders in emotional intelligence.
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Table 7. The predictive role of father’s perceived styles in their sons’ emotional intelligence.
analyzed, respectively. The results of Table 7 showed that, father’s parental treatment styles were regressed on their male children’s emotional intelligence.
Table 7 demonstrated that father’s tolerance predicted sons’ emotional intelligence; it contributed (9%) to the variation of the male children’s emotional intelligence. Table 8 pointed out to what extent the perceived parental styles contributed to the variation of the female daughter’s emotional intelligence.
Table 8 indicated that, the equality among the daughters contributed (9%) in
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Table 8. The predictive role of father’s perceived styles in their daughter’s emotional intelligence.
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Table 9. The predictive role of mother’s perceived styles in daughters’ emotional intelligence.
the variation of the females’ emotional intelligence. Both styles were stressing the equality among the daughters, adherence to the principles & non contradiction contributed (12%) in the variation of the females ’ emotional intelligence.
Table 9 referred to that, regarding the predictive role of mother’s perceived styles in emotional intelligence, they did not predict the sons’ emotional intelligence, but they predicted the daughters’ emotional intelligence.
Table 9 showed that, mother’s use of acceptance style contributed (11%) to the variation of their daughters’ emotional intelligence.
6. Discussion
The results of current study added to the research on the field of emotional intelligence, the role of the early parental treatment in forming emotional intelligence as mental ability in offspring in late adolescence. These results contributed to parents’ extended role in forming children’s abilities and emotions until a late age. The results were discussed in light of to what extent the study hypotheses were verified, to what extent the results of this study agreed or disagreed with that of the previous studies, to what extent they raised research hypotheses could be verified in the future.
The results of current study showed that hypotheses were partially right. Some perceived parental treatment styles in childhood predicted emotional intelligence as mental ability in adolescence. Father’s tolerance predicted their sons’ emotional intelligence. Some studies demonstrated the correlation between this style and sons’ ability to control their emotions in adolescence (Chen et al., 2018). Results of the study conducted by Hakulinen et al. (2013) showed that parents’ use of intolerance style in childhood predicted offspring’ violence in early adulthood. Results of the study conducted by Jabeen et al. (2013) were consistent with the current study results as the parents’ authoritative intolerant style in childhood negatively predicted sons’ ability to control their emotions in adolescence.
The parents’ stressing the equality among their children and parents’ stable attitudes were predicted their daughters’ emotional intelligence. This result was consistent with results of the study conducted by Kilic et al. (2015) concerning the predictive role of parents’ democratic style in their offspring’s ability to organize their emotions in adolescence and early adulthood.
As to the predictive role of mothers’ treatment styles in their children’s emotional intelligence as ability, the current study results indicated that these styles did not predict their sons’ emotional intelligence, while mothers’ acceptance predicted their daughters’ emotional intelligence. This result was consistent with the results of Asghari & Besharat’s study (Asghari & Besharat, 2011) that showed a positive correlation between mother’s perceived warmth and children’s emotional intelligence with its all sub-components (especially organizing the emotions).
7. General Discussion
1) The differences between both genders: the current results demonstrated that, there were differences between both genders in emotional intelligence as ability. The parental treatment styles could be determinants of these differences. Many studies referred to that, gender-related parental treatment highlighted these differences upon parents recognized the gender of fetus male or female, and this treatment has lasted until a late age, stressing the proper role of child’s gender (Toomey et al., 2015). This treatment affected children’s temperament and cognition as well.
Results of the current study added that, the treatment styles predicting emotional intelligence varied with child’s gender, stressing the prominent role of this treatment in developing children’s cognitive and emotional skills. In that regard, Lemerise & Arsenio (2000) emphasized the integration between the cognitive and emotional operations across the developmental phases, that integration was apparent in one’s management of all life situations. The social context had also a prominent role in clarifying this integration.
2) The psychological and social context of emotional intelligence: the current results pointed out that parental treatment styles predicting emotional intelligence in male and female children were father’s styles, while mother’s styles predicted their females’ emotional intelligence only, referring to father’s role in forming male and female children’s emotional intelligence compared to mother’s role. The style predicting emotional intelligence varied with the gender of parents and children. Father’s tolerance – to what extent father ignores some of his children’s mistakes was a suitable social context to develop his sons’ emotional intelligence, while the equality among the children and father’s consistent attitudes towards his children was the best social contexts that facilitated daughters’ emotional cognitive development. There were two different social contexts through which emotional intelligence in children has grown, one of them was suitable for sons and the other for daughters, stressing that gender-related parental socialization had a significant role in children’s psychological development, especially emotional cognitive development.
The research hypotheses were verified in future studies: the current results referred to several themes that could be the field for the next scientific research. These themes are as follows:
a) Parental styles’ relationship to cognitive abilities development varied with child’s gender. The previous results indicated that, social context related to emotional intelligence as mental ability varied with the gender of parents and children. Hence, it required more studies to discover the relationship between parental styles used by both parents and child’s gender considering parents’ attitudes to children’s accepted behaviors according to their gender.
b) There was a remarkable scarcity in studies dealing with the relationship between these styles and emotional intelligence as ability, and this scarcity was not matched for researchers’ interest in the relationship between these styles and emotional intelligence as a trait. There was a remarkable scarcity in studies dealing with the relationship between parenting styles and the development of emotional intelligence as ability, indicating that, this required more scientific research to find out its different aspects, maximize the benefit from the research results in developing this type of intelligence in male and female due to its prominent role in facilitating thinking process and prevention against psychological problems.
c) The educators, especially the parents should be trained on using positive styles in socializing their male and female children, in particular the equality among the children, tolerance, and acceptance, because of the role of these styles in developing children’s emotional and cognitive aspects.
d) Concerning the cultural frame and its role in cognitive emotional development, researchers referred to its prominent role crystalized in parental styles used in socializing children to fulfill parents’ expectations about the socially acceptable behaviors by their children, and to develop their children socially, emotionally, and cognitively. Methodologically, the cultural frame affected the content of scales estimating parental styles and emotional intelligence, hence, the cultural frame-public and private should be considered in interpreting the relationship between parental treatment styles and emotional cognitive behaviors, it also affected how both variables were assessed.
e) The research field of emotional intelligence still required more scientific studies on psychological and socio-psychological determinants of this concept, especially in the Egyptian culture.
f) There is remarkable scarcity in the previous studies on the developmental path of this concept and social-psychological factors accompanied this path.
g) This field needed programs to develop students’ emotional intelligence to facilitate thinking process, school achievement, and increase their satisfaction of education process.
h) Some researchers indicated that the time during which children received parental negative treatment in childhood related to the emotion’s disturbance in adolescence and adulthood (Harpur et al., 2015), which expected a low-level of emotional intelligence. This hypothesis needed to be verified.
i) The relationship between this concept as ability or trait, and some variables that facilitated the adjustment such as the moral development and mindfulness or the variables that hinder it such as the cognitive biases.