The mechanism of “Bing-Bang-Channeling-Cut” was proposed to reduce the volcanic energy (“Bing”) from the Galapagos Hot Spot (GHS) for the mitigation of Ecuadorian earthquake impact (“Bang”). The lag time between the volcanic eruptions in the GHS and Ecuadorian earthquake was probably caused by the undersea seamounts of the Carnegie Ridge (CAR) (“Channeling”). Experimental results from the water reservoir showed that the lag time decreased when increasing the number of drilled holes (“Cut”) in the bottom of reservoir. The present study showed that there was an additional vector initiating the Ecuadorian earthquake from the volcanic eruption in the GHS through the CAR. It was concluded that the harmful effects of Ecuadorian earthquakes could be mitigated by releasing the volcanic energy through the enlarged exit diameters in Holes of Site 1239 (A, B, C) with the presently productive upwelling chlorophyll system at the northeastern CAR.
Throughout the year of 2016 there were strong earthquakes around the world. They include earthquakes in India (4 January, M 6.7), Taiwan (China) (6 February, M 6.4), Japan (15 April, M 7.3), Ecuador (16 April, M 7.8), Myanmar (24 August, M 6.8), Italy (24 August, M 6.2), New Zealand (13 November, M 7.8), and Indonesia (6 December, M 6.5), among which the strongest and the deadliest one was the Ecuadorian earthquake with a death toll of 673. Ecuador’s recorded seismic history dates back to 1541, and records show a cumulative death toll of more than 80,000 [
The seafloor of the Galapagos Island is characterized by a platform on which all its islands are settled. Geomorphologic is formed by the Carnegie Ridge (CAR), Cocos Ridge (COC), and Colon Ridge (CLR), which are considered a natural extension of the Ecuador Insular Platform (EIP). These three ridges can be classified as submarine ridges, although they have oceanic crust formation, since their crust is different from the adjacent seabed [
The purpose of the present study was to analyze 42 inland earthquakes (24 in Ecuador, 16 in Colombia, 2 in Peru) out of 55 events that occurred from 1977 to 2016. Mitigation of the Ecuadorian earthquake impact (“Bang”) was investigated by releasing volcanic energy from the GHS (“Bing”) through drilled Holes (“Cut”) at the undersea seamount of the CAR (“Channeling”).
An initiative experiment was designed to examine the distribution of potential energy of a water reservoir with the increase of the number of drilled holes. The water reservoir (diameter = 44 cm, height = 43 cm) was prepared to release its water stepwise through 12 drilled holes (ID = 0.4 cm) at the bottom side, as shown in
Lag time, as a function of hole number for the release of reservoir water from the top (40 cm high) to the bottom, is analogous to the lag time of occurrences between the volcanic eruptions in the GHS and the Ecuadorian earthquake, as shown in
The buoyancy of the subducted CAR would explain the flatness of the slab beneath Ecuador. The CAR is an ~200 km-wide oceanic plateau abutting the
Ecuadorian Trench. Off the Ecuadorian margin (3˚S-1˚N) close to the Ecuadorian Trench, the CAR presents a relief up to 1000 m in depth and a crustal thickness ranging from 14 km to 19 km. Many geologic features of Ecuador are commonly ascribed to the CAR subduction. The depth of the Trench off Ecuador (at the CAR subduction zone) is less than 2800 m, whereas in offshore Peru and Colombia, it is up to 3700 m depth, indicating that the CAR is currently subducting at the Trench. The thick CAR crust extends at least 60 km beneath the upper plate during earthquakes. Coastal uplift opposite the CAR is indicated by marine terraces exposed at 200 - 300 m as the uplift of the Ecuadorian coast to the subduction of the CAR. The Coastal Cordillera is an ~N-S-trending chain located ~120 km east of the Trench. To the east, it limits the marine terraces observed along the Ecuadorian coast. The highest points of the Coastal Cordillera of Ecuador are ~600 - 700 m above sea level. The uplift of the Coastal Cordillera probably altered the drainage patterns and associated sediment transfer. The main mechanism for increasing the geothermal gradient may have been the flattening of the slab produced by the subduction of the CAR. Under such conditions, the subducted slab would have remained under pressure-temperature (P-T) conditions that allowed partial melting to occur for a long period of time. The slab is not flat beneath Ecuador, but, instead it regularly dips to the east with an angle of 25˚ - 35˚. Estimates derived from [
of subduction of the CAR only requires a 300 km penetration of the CAR beneath Ecuador.
The direction of energy transfer from the CAR to Ecuador should be perpendicular to the surface between the CAR and Ecuador Continental Shelf (ECS) according to the principle of Pascal. The coastal margin of Ecuador comprises Pliocene sediments of marine terraces (Tablazos) [
Local constructional volcanism was at a distances of 2 km for 12 high- and 9 low- temperature hydrothermal vents along the East Pacific Rise (EPR) axis between 9˚49’- 51’N (the Clipperton and Siqueiros transforms). There were actively venting black smokers with chimney structures of Tube Worm Pillar (
The numbers of volcanoes and earthquakes in
Country | Volcano Number | Earthquake Number | Ridge |
---|---|---|---|
Costa Rica | 13 | 11 | Cocos (Costa Rica Province, Cocos Island Province, Southwest Province) |
Panama | 3 | 4 | Coiba |
Colombia | 16 | 25 | Carnegie/Malpelo/Columbia-Ecuador Trench |
Nicaragua | 19 | 9 | Nicaraguan fore-are |
Ecuador | 43 | 24 | Carnegie (300 km beneath) |
Guatemala | 29 | 25 | Middle American Trench |
Honduras | 4 | 3 | Middle American Trench |
Peru | 29 | 56 | Nazca |
El Salvador | 22 | 16 | Middle American Trench |
Chile | 137 | 133 | Chile Rise |
Mexico | 42 | 64 | Tehuantepec/East Pacific Rise |
It is thus necessary to release the overall energy retained at the CAR prior to being delivered in the form of disastrous Ecuadorian earthquake.
As conceptually drawn in
1) “Bing” step; volcanic eruption in the GHS,
2) “Channeling” step; Ecuador Insular Shelf (EIS), CAR, Ecuadorian Trench, Ecuador Continental Shelf (ECS) [
3) “Bang” step; Ecuadorian earthquake (Tablazos, Coastal cordillera, Cordillera occidental, Cordillera real, Sub-Andean zone).
Thermal energy (Q) produced by volcanic eruption in the GHS is transferred to the CAR due to CAR formation of volcanic plateau over the GHS [
Q = P ⋅ A ⋅ Δ x (1)
Unsteady state energy balance over the CAR is given by,
d Q d t = Q ˙ i n − Q ˙ o u t + Q ˙ g e n − Q ˙ c o n (2)
where Q ˙ i n is the input rate of energy from volcanic eruptions in the GHS,
Q ˙ o u t , the output rate of energy to Ecuador, Panama Basin, and Peru Basin,
Q ˙ g e n , the generation rate of energy by volcanoes in the CAR,
Q ˙ c o n , the consumption rate of energy by earthquakes in the CAR.
At steady state, d Q d t = 0 in Equation (2).
Q ˙ i n is assumed to be, the volcanic thermal energy in the GHS ( Q ˙ G ), i.e. Q ˙ i n = Q ˙ G
Q ˙ o u t is defined as the sum of, the energy flow rate causing the earthquake in Ecuador ( Q ˙ E ), and, the energy flow rate through the drilled Holes in the CAR ( Q ˙ H ), i.e. Q ˙ o u t = Q ˙ E + Q ˙ H
Since the CAR was seismically estimated to be ~20 and ~11.5 Myr old seafloor over the Nazca Plate in the Galapagos Volcanic Plateau (GVP) [
Therefore, Equation (2) is simplified as,
Q ˙ E = Q ˙ G − Q ˙ H (3)
It is evident that the energy flow rate causing the Ecuadorian earthquake ( Q ˙ E ) becomes small with the increase of the energy flow rate through the drilled Holes in the CAR ( Q ˙ H ) for the given volcanic eruptions in the GHS ( Q ˙ G )
Sub-aerial volcanoes and submarine seamounts absorb the sunlight and convert it into thermal energy with heat transfer mediums like magma, lava, air and seawater. Incoming solar radiation is 174 PW while 89 PW is absorbed by land and oceans [
Locations of Sites 1238-1242 near CAR are shown in
There can be prospective locations for drilling vents as below.
1) Hydrothermal (≥350˚C) vent [
2) Black smoker vents by insoluble black FeS and FeS2 during volcanic eruption,
3) Tube Worm Pillar growing area due to its preference of H2S [
4) Coral bleaching area caused by stress changes in temperature, light, or nutrients to expel the symbiotic algal for complete white [
There can be momentum ( m ˙ ) and heat flow ( Q ˙ ) rates as follows,
m ˙ = ρ u S (4)
m ˙ = ρ u ( π 4 D 2 ) (5)
Q ˙ = m ˙ C P Δ T (6)
Equations (5) and (6) reduce to,
Q ˙ = ρ u ( π 4 D 2 ) C P Δ T = ( π 4 ρ C P ) u D 2 Δ T (7)
where
Q ˙ = heat flow rate through drilling vent,
ρ = density of undersea water,
C P = heat capacity of undersea water,
u = linear flow velocity passing through drilling vent,
D = diameter of drilling vent,
∆T = temperature difference between vent exit (T2) and vent surrounding (T1).
In order to release high hydrothermal flux ( Q ˙ ) through drilling vents, it is necessary to enlarge the diameter (D) in Equation (7).
There were drilling Sites of 1239 (0˚40.32'S, 82˚4.86'W) and 1238 (1˚52.310'S, 82˚46.934'W) at 1414 m and 2209 m depth of CAR, respectively. In Site 1239, there were 3 Holes; 1239A with cored lengh of 515.4 m, 1239B - 396.7 m, and 1239C - 114 m [
productive upwelling system off Ecuador for chlorophyll distribution. Therefore, Holes of Site 1239 (A, B, C) might produce the geothermal energy released from the volcanic eruption in the GHS through the undersea seamounts of the CAR. Since there were enriched H2S around such Holes, the vents diameter can be enlarged to release more internal energy retained by CAR to external undersea surroundings. The Upper Eastern Coast of Australia showed the coral bleaching; Northern Sector showed 81% severe coral bleaching, Central Sector 33%, and the Southern Sector 1%. Since Papua New Guinea has 60 active volcanoes, acidic volcanic chemicals (SO2, H2S, HCl, HF, H2SO4) are transported as volcanic plume by current and wind to the Eastern Coast of Australia and may cause the severe coral bleaching. The closer to the Papua New Guinea, the worse the coral bleaching was observed. Therefore, the coral bleaching area is also a prominent drilling site of volcanic seamount black smoker vents.
1) Hydrothermal (≥350˚C),
2) Black smoker (FeS/FeS2) venting,
3) Tube Worm Pillar presence,
4) Abundant H2S smelling,
5) Toxic volcanic chemicals (SO2, H2S, HCl, HF, H2SO4) to cause coral bleaching,
6) Lava flow channel. Intervals between volcanic eruptive fissure system can be several hundred meters up to several kilometers with a typical vent field of ~ 30 × 60 m [
The work (dW) required to move an object a finite distance (dx) with a thrust force of magnitude (F) is defined as,
d W = F d x (8)
By integration,
∫ 1 2 d W = ∫ 1 2 F d x
Δ W = F Δ x (9)
where ∆x = length of earth movement by earthquake.
The energy balance for a steady-state process reduces to [
Δ ( H _ + u 2 2 g c + g Z g c ) + Q _ − W _ = 0 (10)
The kinetic energy, Δ u 2 2 g c , and the potential energy, Δ g Z g c , are usually quite small in comparison with the molar enthalpy change, Δ H _ . Therefore, the steady-state energy equation reduces to
Δ H _ = Q _ − W _ (11)
If molar heat Q _ = 0 due to adiabatic process, then,
Δ H _ = − W _
∴ W _ = H 1 _ − H 2 _
or Δ W = Δ H 1 − Δ H 2 (12)
Combining Equations (9) and (12),
F Δ x = Δ H 1 − Δ H 2
∴ Δ x = Δ H 1 − Δ H 2 F (13)
Equation (13) implies that Δ x or the effect of an earthquake can be small if Δ H 1 (enthalpy change before Ecuadorian earthquakes) is lowered down by releasing its enthalpy of volcanic energy through several drillings for hydrothermal vents at the CAR, while Δ H 2 (enthalpy change after Ecuadorian earthquake) and thrust force (F) are assumed constant.
Sunlight is composed of 3 processes of reflection, absorption and transmission. As for subaerial volcanoes and submarine seamounts, they absorb the sunlight and convert it into thermal energy with heat transfer medium like magma, lava, air and seawater. Solar radiation energy activates the plate movement to cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Incoming solar radiation is 174 PW and 89 PW absorbed by land and oceans, as shown in
The Galapagos Hot Spot (GHS) provides its own thermic energy from magma. Therefore, overall energy at the hot GHS from solar radiation and magma are transferred to the cold CAR according to the second law of thermodynamics.
If the solar energy is 89 PW, 71% is ocean and 30,000 seamounts, there are a maximal 2,100 MW per seamount. If 100,000 seamounts; maximal 620 MW per seamount. CAR is a relatively large seamount (600 km) among seamounts of Chile Rise (2250), Juan Fernandez Ridge (900), Iquique Ridge (600), Nazca Ridge (1000), Malpelo Ridge (300), Coiba Ridge (150), and Cocos Ridge (1000). Even if the solar energy absorbed to the ocean is mostly absorbed to the seawater above CAR, a significant amount of the solar energy is absorbed to the CAR, which moves along with the Nazca Plate relative to the GHS. The CAR stands 1.2 ~ 1.4 to 2.7 ~ 3.1 km higher than the surrounding seafloor, and presently is being subducted beneath the Southern American Plate (5.8 cm/yr) [
Therefore, the energy of GHS from solar energy and volcanoes are channeled to the CAR and later landward (Ecuador, Peru, Colombia). Ecuadorian earthquakes occurred on the junction between CAR and the Ecuadorian Continental Shelf (ECS) along with the upper plate crust of the inferred continuation of the CAR. It appears that the Eastern CAR is analogous to a shovel lifting up the South American Plate by subduction, whose force distribution per unit area (pressure) is widely dispersed to the South American Plate along the Peru-Ecuador-Colombia Trench in the form of earthquakes between Trench and Northern Volcanic Zone, as observed in the 1964 Alaska earthquake associated with tectonic deformation between Aleutian the Trench and Aleutian Volcanic Arc [
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law of black body radiation, the total emissive power of a black body (Wb) is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature (T) [
W b = 0.1713 T 4 (14)
Therefore, as the solar radiation makes higher T, the more emissive power of the CAR is produced.
If a volcano or earthquake is activated by one of 3 types of convergent, divergent and transform plate boundaries, the resultant heat output (Q) from seamounts volcano is,
Q = m C p Δ T (15)
where m = mass
Cp = heat capacity
∆T = temperature difference between before and after volcanoes
If hydrothermal vents are punctured at the CAR, the volcanic energy caused by the volcanic activities in the Galapagos Islands can be slowly released at the CAR―Ecuador margin collision area [
Thermal energy, either from Galapagos volcanoes or solar radiation, is delivered to the CAR. Energy is transformed in work while work is converted to force with distance change. Pressure is force per unit area. Therefore, energy is transformed by force per unit area or pressure. Pressure at the interface of the Eastern CAR and Ecuadorian margin is distributed by Pascal’s principle of even distribution perpendicularly towards the surface of Eastern CAR, where the earthquake occurs at a certain time at the contact area in weakest Ecuador, Peru and Colombia. It is thus necessary to reduce the energy or pressure inflated in the CAR by drilling holes along the Eastern CAR for hydrothermal vents.
It is evident that there is a dual peak system in the insolation profile with monthly distribution of the Equator (0˚ latitude), which is similar to the patterns in
volcanic eruptions with different dates at the same volcano in Wolf causing the same earthquake event #46.
Since volcanic eruptions in the GHS (“Bing”) are not controllable, their thermal energies should be released by drilling holes in the CAR (“Channeling―Cut”) for mitigation of Ecuadorian earthquake impacts (“Bang”). In the present study, 38 Ecuadorian earthquakes were caused by 12 Fernandina volcanoes and 12 other Galapagos volcanoes (8 Sierra Negra and 4 Wolf) in the GHS while 14 events were caused by inland Ecuadorian volcanoes including 5 at Guagua Pinchicha, 4 at Sangay, 4 at Reventador, and 1 at Cotopaxi. 16 Colombian earthquakes were initiated 5 times by at Fernanadina, 1 by Cerro Azul, 6 by Sierra Negra, 1 by Wolf, 1 by Marchena, and 2 by Alcedo. 2 Peruvian earthquakes were also initiated by each Wolf and Fernandina. There were 2 earthquakes initiated by Colombian volcanoes Galeras, 1 in Colombia and 1 in Peru, while 1 Peruvian earthquake was caused by Guagua Pichincha. Therefore, 42 earthquakes (76%) (24 in Ecuador, 16 in Colombia, 2 in Peru) out of 55 events from 1977 to 2016 were initiated by volcanoes in the GHS, especially 17 events by Fernandina (31%), 14 events by Sierra Negra (25%), 7 events by Wolf (13%). It is thus necessary to monitor on-line the volcanic eruptions of Fernandina, Sierra Negra, and Wolf volcanoes in the GHS via satellite with mean elapsed lag time of 287 days (standard deviation ±219) to provide on early warning system for earthquakes in Ecuador to limit disastrous damage.
There are three vectors initiating Ecuadorian earthquakes as follows; 1) one from the CAR moving on the subduction interface along the plate boundary, 2) one from Ecuadorian Andes volcanoes, and 3) one from deformation within the South American Plate and the Nazca Plate. The present study suggests that there
Volcano (Bing) | Earthquake (Bang) | Seismic Moment Energy Mo (J) | Lag time (days) | Country E (Ecuador), C (Colombia), P (Peru) | Q ˙ E (J∙d−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date (d/m/y) | Volcano | Event No | Date (d/m/y) | Mw | ||||
23/03/77 | Fernandina | 8 | 08/05/77 | 5.5 | 2.2 × 1017 | 45 | E | 5.0 × 1015 |
08/08/78 | Fernandina | 9 | 01/03/79 | 5.7 | 4.4 × 1017 | 283 | E | 1.6 × 1015 |
29/01/79 | Cerro Azul | 49 | 29/05/79 | 5.0 | 3.9 × 1016 | 88 | C | 4.4 × 1014 |
-/11/79 (2 weeks) | Sierra Negra | 50 | 23/11/79 | 7.2 | 7.8 × 1019 | 15 | C | 5.2 × 1018 |
10 | 12/12/79 | 7.9 | 8.7 × 1020 | 42 | E | 2.1 × 1019 | ||
11 | 26/01/80 | 5.6 | 3.1 × 1017 | 86 | C | 3.6 × 1015 | ||
43 | 20/04/80 | 5.2 | 7.8 × 1016 | 153 | E | 5.1 × 1014 | ||
51 | 25/06/80 | 6.0 | 1.2 × 1018 | 220 | C | 5.5 × 1015 | ||
24 | 18/08/80 | 5.9 | 8.7 × 1017 | 273 | E | 3.2 × 1015 | ||
44 | 08/10/80 | 6.0 | 1.2 × 1018 | 343 | E | 3.5 × 1015 | ||
17 | 07/07/81 | 5.3 | 1.1 × 1017 | 613 | C | 6.7 × 1014 | ||
12 | 06/05/81 | 6.4 | 4.9 × 1018 | 552 | E | 8.9 × 1015 | ||
22 | 02/01/81 | 5.9 | 8.7 × 1017 | 436 | C | 2.0 × 1015 | ||
23 | 07/01/81 | 5.9 | 8.7 × 1017 | 441 | C | 2.0 × 1015 | ||
25 | 27/06/81 | 5.3 | 1.1 × 1017 | 603 | E | 1.8 × 1014 | ||
01/08/81 | Fernandina | 45 | 03/11/81 | 5.9 | 8.7 × 1017 | 92 | E | 9.5 × 1015 |
24/05/82 | Wolf | 46 | 18/11/82 | 6.5 | 6.9 × 1018 | 174 | E | 4.0 × 1016 |
06/09/82 | 72 | 9.6 × 1015 | ||||||
-/3-9/82 (6 months) | Guagua Pichincha | 37 | 11/04/82 | 5.1 | 5.5 × 1016 | - | E | - |
06/09/82 | Wolf | 41 | 31/03/83 | 5.6 | 3.1 × 1017 | 204 | C | 1.5 × 1015 |
47 | 12/04/83 | 7.0 | 3.9 × 1019 | 216 | P | 1.8 × 1017 | ||
27 | 19/05/83 | 5.2 | 7.8 × 1016 | 253 | E | 3.1 × 1014 | ||
05/08/83 | Sangay | 34 | 17/01/84 | 5.5 | 2.2 × 1017 | - | E | - |
30/03/84 | Fernandina | 13 | 10/06/85 | 5.5 | 2.2 × 1017 | 430 | C | 5.1 × 1014 |
-/-/87 | Reventador | 28 | 06/03/87 | 5.2 | 7.8 × 1016 | - | E | - |
29 | 6.4 | 4.9 × 1018 | - | E | - | |||
30 | 7.1 | 5.5 × 1019 | - | E | - | |||
32 | 22/09/87 | 6.0 | 1.2 × 1018 | - | E | - | ||
14/09/88 | Fernandina | 18 | 12/02/89 | 5.1 | 5.5 × 1016 | 148 | C | 3.7 × 1014 |
19 | 09/09/89 | 5.7 | 4.4 × 1017 | 207 | C | 2.1 × 1015 | ||
31 | 11/08/90 | 5.1 | 5.5 × 1016 | 697 | E | 7.9 × 1013 |
14/09/88 | Fernandina | 15 | 02/09/90 | 6.2 | 2.5 × 1018 | 718 | E | 3.5 × 1015 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
26 | 10/02/90 | 5.5 | 2.2 × 1017 | 408 | E | 5.4 × 1014 | ||
14 | 25/08/90 | 5.3 | 1.1 × 1017 | 712 | C | 1.5 × 1014 | ||
35 | 29/07/90 | 5.2 | 7.8 × 1016 | 751 | P | 1.0 × 1014 | ||
19/04/91 | Fernandina | 33 | 26/12/92 | 5.4 | 1.6 × 1017 | 612 | E | 2.6 × 1014 |
25/09/91 | Marchena | 16 | 19/11/91 | 7.2 | 7.8 × 1019 | 54 | C | 1.4 × 1018 |
-/07/92 | Galeras | 52 | 15/08/92 | 5.9 | 8.7 × 1017 | - | C | - |
-/-1-/90 | Guagua Pichincha | 36 | 29/03/91 | 5.6 | 3.1 × 1017 | - | P | - |
14/01/93 | Galeras | 48 | 11/09/93 | 5.7 | 4.4 × 1017 | - | P | 1.9 × 1015 |
15/11/93 | Alcedo | 42 | 06/06/94 | 6.8 | 2.0 × 1019 | 201 | C | 1.0 × 1017 |
20 | 26/11/94 | 5.3 | 1.1 × 1017 | 376 | C | 2.9 × 1014 | ||
-/-/95 | Sangay | 38 | 03/10/95 | 7.0 | 3.9 × 1019 | - | E | - |
39 | 03/10/95 | 6.4 | 4.9 × 1018 | - | E | - | ||
40 | 08/10/95 | 5.4 | 1.6 × 1017 | - | E | - | ||
25/01/95 | Fernandina | 21 | 13/11/95 | 5.3 | 1.1 × 1017 | 288 | C | 3.8 × 1014 |
13/05/05 | Fernandina | - | 21/05/05 | 6.3 | 3.5 × 1018 | 8 | E | 4.4 × 1017 |
22/10/05 | Sierra Negra | - | 23/12/05 | 6.1 | 1.7 × 1018 | 60 | E | 2.8 × 1016 |
- | 21/05/06 | 6.0 | 1.2 × 1018 | 210 | E | 5.7 × 1015 | ||
10/04/09 | Fernandina | Galapagos Islands | 15/04/09 | 6.3 | 3.5 × 1018 | 5 | E | 7.0 × 1017 |
- | 10/05/09 | 6.1 | 1.7 × 1018 | 30 | E | 5.7 × 1016 | ||
Galapagos Islands | 15/10/09 | 6.0 | 1.2 × 1018 | 185 | E | 6.5 × 1015 | ||
25/05/15 | Wolf | Muisne, Pedernales | 16/04/16 | 7.8 | 6.2 × 1020 | 321 | E | 1.9 × 1018 |
Rosa Zarate | 18/05/16 | 6.7 | 1.4 × 1019 | 358 | E | 3.9 × 1016 | ||
Mompiche | 19/05/16 | 6.8 | 2.0 × 1019 | 359 | E | 5.6 × 1016 | ||
14/08/15 | Cotopaxi | - | - | - | - | - | E | - |
is an additional vector to initiate Ecuadorian earthquakes due to the volcanic eruptions in the GHS through the CAR. Since 76% of earthquakes were initiated by volcanic eruptions in the GHS (“Bing”), it is necessary to release the propagated energy in the CAR (“Channeling”) through drilled Holes (“Cut”) to mitigte the impact of Ecuadorian earthquakes (“Bang”). The eruption at Wolf in the GHS (25 May 2015) might induce the inland Cotopaxi eruption within 79 days. After Wolf in the GHS and 242 days after the Cotopaxi eruption, a disastrous earthquake (Mw 7.8) occurred at Muisne and Pedernales (0.371˚N 79.940˚W, the boundary of Esmeraldas terraces and Coastal cordillera) on April 15, 2016. Thereafter, two consecutive earthquake events at coastal towns of Rosa Zarate (Mw 6.7) and Mompiche (Mw 6.8) occurred after 32 and 33 days, respectively (
Month | Number of volcanic eruption | Number of earthquake event |
---|---|---|
1 | 3 | 4 |
2 | 0 | 2 |
3 | 2 | 4 |
4 | 2 | 5 |
5 | 3 | 9 |
6 | 0 | 4 |
7 | 1 | 2 |
8 | 4 | 5 |
9 | 5 | 4 |
10 | 1 | 4 |
11 | 2 | 6 |
12 | 0 | 3 |
Number of Volcanic Eruption | Number of Earthquake per Case | Number of Cases | Earthquake Event Number |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 | 9 | 8, 9, 49, 45, 13, 33, 16, 21, 21/05/05 |
1 | 2 | 2 | 42, 20, 23/12/05, 21/05/06 |
1 | 3 | 3 | 41, 47, 27, 15/04/09, 10/05/09, 15/10/09, 16/04/16, 18/05/16, 19/05/16 |
1 | 7 | 1 | 18, 19, 31, 15, 26, 14, 35 |
1 | 12 | 1 | 50, 10, 11, 43, 51, 24, 44, 17, 12, 22, 23, 25 |
2 | 1 | 1 | 46 |
(“Bing”) to Ecuador (“Bang”) should be mitigated by releasing the volcanic energy reserved in the CAR (“Channeling”) through drilled Holes (“Cut”) in the CAR―Ecuador margin collision length of 160 km [
τ = volumeofpipe volumetricflowrate (16)
or
τ = A L q (17)
where L is the distance between the GHS and Ecuador (926 km),
A, the cross-sectional area of the CAR (160 km × 2.5 km), 160 km collision length [
τ , the lag time 287 ± 219 days from
There were 42 earthquakes initiated by volcanic eruptions in the GHS; 24 in Ecuador, 16 in Colombia, and 2 in Peru. Since the inland earthquakes occurred after 287 days of volcanic eruptions in the GHS through channeling the CAR, the volumetric flow rate (q) is given by,
q = A L τ = ( 160 × 2.5 × 926 ) km 3 287 days = 1.3 × 10 3 km 3 ⋅ d − 1 (18)
Assuming the density of the volcanic materials to be 103 kg m−3, then the mass flow rate ( m ˙ ) is,
m ˙ = 1.3 × 10 12 ton ⋅ d − 1 (19)
Since the volcanic energy flow rate from the GHS ( Q ˙ G ) is given by,
Q ˙ G = m ˙ C P T i (20)
where C P is the specific heat at constant pressure (1 cal∙g−1∙c−1),
Ti is the temperature of the volcanic material (350˚C) [
Therefore, Q ˙ G is given by,
Q ˙ G = ( 1.3 × 10 12 ton ⋅ d − 1 ) × ( 1 cal ⋅ g − 1 ⋅ ˚ C − 1 ) × ( 350 ˚ C ) = 4.6 × 10 20 cal ⋅ d − 1
or
Q ˙ G = 1.9 × 10 21 J ⋅ d − 1 (21)
As shown in
Since the mean lag time was 287 days,
Q G = ( 1.9 × 10 21 J ⋅ d − 1 ) × ( 287 days ) = 5.5 × 10 23 J (22)
From the conversion of earthquake magnitude to seismic momentum energy (Mo), Q G of 5.5 × 1023 J is equivalent to Mo of 5.5 × 1023 J [
The moment magnitude scale (Mw) among Richter magnitude scale ( M L ) and surface wave magnitude scale ( M S ) is determined by the relationship of
Mw = 2 3 log 10 ( Mo ) − 10.7 with the seismic moment (Mo) in erg (10−7 N∙m).
Therefore, Q G is equivalent to Mw 9.79; regarded as the maximum transferrable energy through the CAR.
However, the strongest earthquake in the world was Mw 9.5, which occurred in southern Chile in 1960. There were big earthquakes in 1906 (Mw 8.8), 1942 (Mw 7.8), 1958 (Mw 7.8), 1960 (Mw 7.6), 1970 (Mw 7.8) 1979 (Mw 8.1), 1996 (Mw 7.5) (Bilek 2009), and 2016 (Mw 7.8) along the coastal seashores of Ecuador, which were all less than Mw 9.79. Q ˙ E for each earthquake event was determined from Mo (J) divided by the lag time (days), as summarized in
Q ˙ i = m ˙ C p Δ T i (23)
T e x i t = 350 ˚ C [
C p = 4.2 J ⋅ g − 1 ⋅ ˚ C − 1
m ˙ = ρ ⋅ u ⋅ s (24)
D = 0.3 ~ 0.4 m [
∴ S = π 4 D 2 = π 4 ⋅ 0.4 2 m 2 (25)
The total number of holes (n) required to mitigate the impact of Ecuadorian earthquakes determined, for example, for the equivalent case of earthquake event number 8 in
( 5 × 10 15 J ⋅ d − 1 ) × ( 1 d ⋅ 24 h − 1 ) × ( 1 h ⋅ 3600 s − 1 ) = ( n ) × ( ρ , 1 g ⋅ 10 6 m − 3 ) × ( u , m ⋅ s − 1 ) × ( π 4 ⋅ 0.16 m 2 ) × ( 4.2 J ⋅ g − 1 ⋅ ˚ C − 1 ) × ( 350 ˚ C )
n = 2.3 × 10 12 u (26)
where u (m∙s−1) is the exit linear velocity of hydrothermal energy ( Q ˙ H ) from drilled Hole.
Since Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii showed channel velocities of 1 ~ 3 m∙s−1 [
n ≅ 1 × 10 12 (27)
Therefore, an almost infinite number of drilling holes ( n = 1 × 10 12 ) is required to entirely negate the impact of Ecuadorian earthquakes by event #8. In order to minimize the harmful effects of Ecuadorian earthquakes (“Bang”), the volcanic thermal energy from the GHS (“Bing”) was released through drilled Holes at the CAR (“Channeling-Cut”). When drilled Holes are present in the CAR, the volcanic energy from the volcanic eruption in the GHS is no longer reserved in the CAR, but released to the seawater of the Ecuadorian Trench through drilled Holes around the contour of 2500 m in depth (
The monthly profile of volcanic eruptions was similar to that of earthquake events (
The national geological map of Ecuador shows the marine terraces composed of mainly Tertiary, partially Cretaceous, and Quaternary sedimentary rocks [
W g c d 2 Y d t 2 = − K Y − C d Y d t + F ( t ) (28)
where
Y(t) is the travel distance variable with time (t),
K, the Hooke’s constant of the CAR,
C, the viscous damping coefficient of Pliocene sediments at Ecuadorian marine terraces
(Tablazos),
F(t), the driving force of the Ecuadorian earthquake,
W, the mass of Ecuador,
gc, the gravitational constant.
3 cases of 1) oscillatory ( ζ < 1 ), 2) critically damped ( ζ = 1 ), and 3) nonoscillatory ( ζ > 1 ) solutions are available, where the damping ratio ( ζ ) is given by,
ζ = g c C 2 4 W K (29)
Since gc, W, and K are constant, ζ is proportional to C of Tablazos and less than 1 [
Specifically, more drilled holes can be allocated in the northeastern CAR to block the propagation of volcanic energy from the GHS toward the Esmeraldas area to reduce the impact of Ecuadorian earthquakes.
For the sake of simplicity, Ecuadorian earthquakes could be mitigated by releasing the volcanic energy through the enlarged Holes of Site 1239 (A, B, C) with the highly productive upwelling chlorophyll system at the northeastern CAR.
The mechanism of “Bing-Bang-Channeling-Cut” was proposed to reduce the volcanic energy (“Bing”) from the Galapagos Hot Spot (GHS) to limit the damage from Ecuadorian earthquakes (“Bang”). The lag time between the volcanic eruption and Ecuadorian earthquake was presumably caused by the volcanic seamounts of the Carnegie Ridge (“Channeling”). Similar cases could be applicable to Japan, California (USA), Chile, Peru, Mexico, and Italy. Experimental results from the water reservoir showed that the lag time decreased when increasing drilled holes (“Cut”) in the bottom of the reservoir. 6 volcanoes in the GHS induced 42 inland earthquakes (24 in Ecuador, 16 in Colombia, 2 in Peru) out of 55 from 1977 to 2016. Earthquake was hypothetically initiated by volcanoes in the GHS, especially 17 events caused by Fernandina (31%), 14 events by Sierra Negra (25%), 7 events by Wolf (13%). Volcanic eruptions in September in the GHS caused the Ecuadorian earthquakes subsequently in May with a lag time ± standard deviation of 287 days (±219).
No. | Bing | Bang | Channeling | Cut |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Galapagos Hot Spot | Ecuador | Carnegie Ridge | North East Carnegie Ridge with Ecuador Trench |
2 | 1) Anatahan, Mariana Islands 2) Oshika Peninsula of Tohoku 3) Subduction of Philippine Sea Plate or Pacific Plate | 1) Izu Oshima, Izu Peninsula, Izu Islands, Bonin Islands, Japan 2) Tohoku 3) Kobe | 1) East/West Mariana Ridge, Bonin Islands, Izu Islands 2) Shatsky Rise 3) Izu-Shichito Ridge | 1) Izu Arc, Bonin Arc with Izu-Bonin Trench, Mariana Arc with Mariana Trench 2) Shatsky Rise with Japan Trench 3) Izu-Shichito Ridge with Nankai Trough |
3 | Murray, Mendocino, Blanco Fracture Zone | San Andreas Fault, Inner Borderland, Outer Borderland, Southern Borderland (California, U. S. A) | Explorer Ridge, Juan de Fuca Ridge, Gorda Ridge | Cascadia Subduction Zone with Pacific Northwest |
4 | Mt. Erebus | Chile | Iquique Ridge, Juan-Fernandez Ridge | Iquique Ridge, Juan-Fernandez Ridge with Chile Trench |
5 | Mt. Erebus | Peru | Nazca Ridge | Nazca Ridge with Peru Trench |
6 | Easter Island | Mexico | East Pacific Rise (EPR) | 14 high temperature (≥350˚C) hydrothermal vents and low temperature <35˚C biological communities along the EPR axis |
7 | Mt. Etna | Italy (Sicilia, Naples, L'Aguila) | Marsili | Campi Flegrei/Solfatara |
The present study showed that there was an additional vector initiating the Ecuadorian earthquakes caused by the volcanic eruption in the GHS through the Carnegie Ridge (CAR). It was found that the impact of Ecuadorian earthquakes could be mitigated by releasing the volcanic energy through the enlarged exit diameters in Holes of Site 1239 (A, B, C) with the presently productive upwelling chlorophyll system at the northeastern CAR.
The author wishes to express his great appreciation of the assistance provided by the late Professor Emeritus Soon-Ung Park at The School of Earth and Environmental Sciences of Seoul National University. This work was funded by the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research at the University of Suwon and G-LAND, Republic of Korea. Editing work undertaken by Professor Jonathan Wright is also greatly appreciated.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
Kim, T.-J. (2018) Mitigation of Ecuadorian Earthquake Impact. Open Journal of Earthquake Research, 7, 195-219. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojer.2018.73012