The study aimed to assess the physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water and its potential health effect on study area population. Physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters in six stations of four water springs of Hajigak iron ore mine were studied. These four springs are the predominant source of water in this area. The inhabitant’s villages around the area of interest use these waters 12 months per year without any treatment. Whereas this mine consists of 66% of iron, 6 PPM gold, 26 PPM silver, thorium and some poly metals that directly affect the quality of water. The quality of these water sources has not been investigated and analyzed before for drinking purpose. Therefore studies on spring water quality required analysis for chemical, physical and bacteriological parameters. Chemical and physical analyses revealed that these spring waters are toxic free and the area has very fresh and good quality water based on the guidelines of World Health Organization, national standard of most Asian countries and standard values for Afghanistan. However, the bacteriological analysis detected the E. coli, fecal coli form and total coli form bacteria in water samples that may cause some diseases and health problems.
Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy [
As studies on hydrogeology of ground water have been done in different parts of Hajigak iron ore mine, no comprehensive study has been completed on the water quality of this area for drinking purposes. In this study, the quality of water in Hajigak Iron Ore Mine is evaluated using lab analysis, experiments, and suggestion based on lab result, site visits and inhabitant interviews. The lab analysis involves physical parameters such as temperature, EC, TDS, chemical parameters such as pH, DO, total hardness and bacteriological parameters of spring/surface water.
The Hajigak iron ore mine is situated in the mountainous province of Bamyan with area covering 35 km2 west of the capital Kabul with altitude more than 3700 meters above sea-level. Peters (2007) stated that Hajigak deposit, 2100 Mt, is of world-class size [
The geohydrology of the Hajigak mine is recognized by Peters and others [
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of water [
Physical characteristics of water including temperature, electrical conductivity, color, turbidity, salinity, taste, odor and total dissolved solids that are determined by the help of new modern technological equipments with very accuracy analysis done in situ and in water lab. According to Freeze (1979) electrical conductivity is the ability of a substance to conduct an electrical current [
Chemical characteristics of water involve pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness, heavy metals and surfactants. The chemical characteristics of natural water are a reflection of the soils and rocks with which the water has been in contact. Microbial and chemical transformations affect the chemical characteristics of water. The pH measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the water. Because values of pH are based on a logarithmic scale, each 1.0 change in pH represents a factor of ten changes in acidity. This means that a pH of 3.0 is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 4.0 [
The use of bacteria as indicators of the sanitary quality of water probably dates back to 1880 when Von Fritsch described Klebsiella pneumoniae and K. rhinoscleromatis as micro-organisms present in human feces [
Total coli forms bacteria can be exist in the soil and water that is polluted by surface water and in human or animal waste.
Fecal coli forms bacteria are a kind of total coli forms, which can be found in the gut and feces of warm-blooded animals and humans. Because the origins of fecal coli forms are more specific than the origins of the more general total coli form group of bacteria, fecal coli forms are considered a more accurate indication of animal or human waste than the total coli forms.
Escherichia coli bacteria (E. coli) are a major species of fecal coli form. The five general groups of bacteria that comprise the total coli forms, only E. coli is generally not found growing and reproducing in the environment. Consequently, E. coli is considered to be the species of coli form bacteria that are the best indicator of fecal pollution and the possible presence of pathogens [
In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial and commercial activities such as manufacturing, mining activities, construction, transport are a major cause of water pollution. This includes runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage, domestic water waste, municipal waste, animal waste, industrial waste, natural process of earth such earthquake, flood, cyclone etc. According to Widyanto (1975) about 80% of water pollution in any developing country is caused by domestic wastes [
Industrial waste disposal has become a significance source of water pollution whether in surface water and ground water. The effluent discharge from industries like textile mills, distilleries, fertilizers factories, sugar factories, tanneries and metal processing industries on surface lands and agricultural lands without following the norms of effluent wastes is causing serious surface water pollution and ground water pollution [
The study area is western part of Hajigak iron ore mine, whereas this iron ore mine is the best known and largest iron oxide deposit in Afghanistan, located in Hajigak Pass of Bamyan province. It has the biggest untapped iron ore deposits of Asia [
Sampling of waters of spring in the study area was carried out manually. Samples were collected at 6 stations covering the entire Hajigak Prospect subareas. At each station, one sample has been collected in new clean 1500 ml sterile bottles (Photo 1). A total of 6 surface/spring water samples were collected. The sample volume, about 1.5 Liters of water, was collected from each sampling sites and stored in a cool container. The sample locations were identified and recorded with the help of GPS (
Temperature reading of water samples measured by WTW pH meter of model pH 3310 SET 2 on the mine site. The electrical conductivity (EC) measurement
Photo 1. Collection of water Sample in Pay Kottal. area of Hajigak iron ore mine.
of water samples have done in water lab through conductivity meter. The model of conductivity meter was Cond 3310 SET 1. The total dissolved solid (TDS) readings of samples were determined by WTW dissolved oxygen meter model-Oxi 3310 SET 1. Color of water samples determined in lab by HACH TEST KIT color model-CO-1, 0-100, 0-500. The turbidity of water samples determined in laboratory by turbidity meter model-WA-PT-4 and for more accuracy the turbidity of water samples analysis in HACH turbidity meter.
According the lab analysis of samples, there is description of individual physical properties of water samples in six stations of spring water in Pai Kottal of Hajigak iron ore mine. It is observed that values of temperature in spring water for throughout of area limited from (11˚C - 16˚C) (
Sample Name | Parameters | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature (˚C) | Salinity (%) | Color (APHA) | Turbidity (NTU) | Total Dissolved Solid (Mg/l) | Electrical Conductivity (μS/cm) | |
HM1 | 16 | 0.20 | 4 | 0.5 | 197.9 | 401 |
H M ′ 1 | 16 | 0.1 | 4 | 0.66 | 400 | 390 |
HM2 | 12 | 0.1 | 5 | 1.80 | 431 | 424 |
HM3 | 11 | 0.13 | 10 | 10 | 130.2 | 272 |
H M ′ 3 | 11 | 0 | 10 | 7.48 | 272 | 280 |
HM4 | 13 | 0 | 3 | 0.54 | 279 | 273 |
impact water quality by enhancing the growth of micro-organisms which may increase taste, odor, color and corrosion problems [
Conductivity values of the water samples shown in (
The TDS values of water sample shown in
The salt content of the water can be measured very precisely using the conductivity method [
Color in drinking water can be caused by dissolved and suspended materials, an example of dissolved substances is tannin, which is caused by organic matter coming from leaves, roots, and plant remains. Suspended material in water bodies may be a result of natural causes and/or human activity. Transparent water with a low accumulation of dissolved materials appears blue. Dissolved organic matter, such as humus, peat or decaying plant matter, can produce a yellow or brown color. Some algae or dinoflagellates produce reddish or deep yellow waters. Water rich in phytoplankton and other algae usually appears green. Soil runoff produces a variety of yellow, red, brown and gray colors [
Turbidity is caused by particles suspended or dissolved in water that scatter light make the water appear cloudy or murky. Particulate matter may include sediment especially clay and silt, fine organic and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, algae, and other microscopic organisms [
The chemical parameters were carried out in lab through titration standard methods and HACH spectrophotometer model DR-3900 by using specific reagents whereas these reagents are very costly and inaccessible. The chemical composition of water sample is carried out by spectrophotometer which is working by specific reagents as follows:
Fluoride (F), Sulphate (SO4), Phospate (PO3), Potassium (K), Nitrite (NO2), Nitrate (NO3), Ammuonia (NH3), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Aluminium (Al), Arsenic (As), Cyanide (Cy).
The pH of water samples is measured by WTW pH meter of model pH 3310 SET 2 at the mine site. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) of samples is determined by WTW dissolved oxygen meter model-Oxi 3310 SET 1. Details on some chemical analysis procedure such as Ca2, Mg2, Cl, Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (PA), Total Alkalinity (TA), Hydroxide (OH), Carbonate (CO3) and Bicarbonate (HCO3) are presented in Appendix.
The pH values of water samples analysis shows range of 7.17 - 8.24 (
Sample Name | Parameters | ||
---|---|---|---|
Total Hardness as CaCO3 (Mg/l) | pH | Dissolved Oxygen | |
HM1 | 140 | 8.05 | 37.4 |
H M ′ 1 | 140 | 7.17 | 37.4 |
HM2 | 170 | 8.24 | 30.8 |
HM3 | 140 | 7.98 | 33.1 |
H M ′ 3 | 140 | 8.24 | 33.1 |
HM4 | 170 | 8.03 | 32.8 |
National Standard of most Asian countries limitation is (6.5 - 8.5). Potential of hydrogen in water samples show an average of 7.95 for whole study area. The World Health Organization [
Water is a great solvent for calcium and magnesium [
Dissolved oxygen is one of the best indicators of water quality. The amount of dissolved oxygen that the water can hold depends on the temperature and salinity of the water. Cold water can hold more dissolved oxygen than warm water and fresh water can hold more dissolved oxygen than salt water [
The values of calcium ranged from 20 mg・l−1 to 60.12 mg・l−1, where the standard limit is up to 75 mg・l−1, showing sufficient calcium in water samples (
The values of total alkalinity in water sample are from 150 - 225 mg・l−1 (
Result of Titration | OH Alkalinity as CaCO3 | CO3 Alkalinity as CaCO3 | HCO3 Alkalinity as CaCO3 |
---|---|---|---|
P = 0 | 0 | 0 | T |
P < 1/2T | 0 | 2P | T-2P |
P = 1/2T | 0 | 2P | 0 |
P > 1/2T | 2P-T | 2(T-P) | 0 |
P = T | T | 0 | 0 |
Sample Name | Parameters | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Calcium Ca2 (mg/lit) | Magnesium Mg2 (mg/lit) | Chloride Cl (mg/lit) | T Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/lit) | P Alkalinity (mg/lit) | |
HM1 | 40 | 26.37 | 0.08 | 200 | 0 |
H M ′ 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
HM2 | 36 | 56.70 | 0.03 | 225 | 0 |
HM3 | 20 | 59.33 | 0.07 | 150 | 0 |
H M ′ 3 | - | - | - | - | - |
HM4 | 60.12 | 13.18 | 0.01 | 150 | 0 |
Sample Name | Parameters | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hydroxide OH (mg/lit) | Carbonate CO3 (mg/lit) | Bicarbonate HCO3 (mg/lit) | Sodium Na (mg/lit) | Total Iron (%) | |
HM1 | 0 | 0 | 200 | 0 | - |
H M ′ 1 | - | - | - | - | 0.16 |
HM2 | 0 | 0 | 225 | 0 | - |
HM3 | 0 | 0 | 150 | 2 | - |
H M ′ 3 | - | - | - | - | 0.44 |
HM4 | 0 | 0 | 150 | 0 | - |
Sample Name | Parameters | Unit | Result |
---|---|---|---|
HM3 | Fluoride (F) | mg/lit | 0.17 |
Sulphate (SO4) | mg/lit | 61 | |
Phospate (PO3) | mg/lit | 0.14 | |
Potassium (K) | mg/lit | 1.1 | |
Nitrite (NO2) | mg/lit | 0.005 | |
Nitrate (NO3) | mg/lit | 0.5 | |
Ammuonia (NH3) | mg/lit | 0.25 | |
Iron (Fe) | mg/lit | 0.35 | |
Manganese (Mn) | mg/lit | 0.2 | |
Copper (Cu) | mg/lit | 0.14 | |
Aluminium (Al) | mg/lit | 0.001 | |
Arsenic (As) | mg/lit | 0 | |
Cyanide (Cy) | mg/lit | 0.002 |
water in this area of mine is fresh and non toxic for drinking purpose of inhabitants. Results reveal that the spring water of study area is free of toxic substances, toxic agents and harmful chemicals, that indicates the area has very fresh and good quality of water according to world health organization 2011 guideline values, National standard of most Asian countries (NSMAC) and standard values for Afghanistan (SVFA).
One of the biggest concerns related to water contamination is bacteria. New developments in UV-VIS spectroscopy utilize the measurement of light absorption to quantify bacterial concentration levels in water samples accurately. This process is immediate, portable, and cost-effective, making a leading choice in analytical instrumentation for water analysis. The water samples immediately transferred to lab for bacterial analysis. This analyze done by HACH spectrophotometer model DR. 5200, that taken three days for accurate result. For analyzing needs 100 ml water sample of each sterile bottle is collected. Water samples analysis for T. coli form have taken three days based on accuracy and equipments requirement in water lab. Whenever the T. coli form bacteria showed existence in water samples, analysis should be done on water samples for fecal coli form and E. coli.
According the bacteriological analysis in water samples, the values of total coli form bacteria is at ranged of 11 - 27 MPN/100ml (
Sample No | Total Coli form (MPN/100ml) | Fecal Coli form (MPN/100ml) | E. coli form (MPN/100ml) |
---|---|---|---|
HM1 | 22 | Present | Present |
H M ′ 1 | 16 | Present | Present |
HM2 | 12 | Absent | Absent |
HM3 | 26 | Present | Present |
H M ′ 3 | 27 | Present | Present |
HM4 | 11 | Absent | Absent |
It is observed that values of temperature in spring water throughout the area are limited from (11˚C - 16˚C) (
The total hardness values of water samples ranged on 140 - 170, the average hardness is 150. The samples No. HM1, H M ′ 1 , HM3 and HM3′ are moderately hard but the sample No. HM2 and HM4 are very hard. Hardness does not pose a health risk [
The values of total alkalinity in water sample are from 150 - 225 mg・l−1 (
There is no concern of diseases and health problems because of water quality based of chemical studies. However, the bacteriological analysis in water samples revealed that the total coli form bacteria ranged between 11 and 27 MPN/100ml (
As on the earth surface, springs are always in contact with open environments, vegetation cover, animals and soils; thus contamination level of these waters is very high and uncontrollable. The most acceptable solution in this area can be the construction of water system in the mouth of springs such reservoirs, which distributes drinking water through channels and pipes to consumers. In this study the major and unique sources of drinking water of inhabitants of this area are springs that flow from high altitudes to downward, whilst washing out of its entire movement direction, which resulted in the contamination of water, specifically the total coli form bacteria that exists in soil, vegetation cover and mammal’s feces; therefore drinking water system is required to be monitored and regular lab analysis is conducted to find out the presence of each kind of bacteria and toxic agents periodically and/or annually. Positive test for total coli form bacteria indicates that the same sample must be analysis for either fecal coli form or E. coli bacteria. Positive test for E. coli bacteria indicates that it is unsafe for drinking, as it is non-potable water, and avoids using for teeth brushing, bathing purposes, until the treatment of water done. Unfortunately in this study E. coli form bacteria exist in water sample that indicates there is a greater health risk to consumers that pathogens exist. Presence of pathogens in short term causes diseases such as diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches or other symptoms, as well as potentially poses long-term health effects, especially for infants, young children, elderly and people with severely compromised immune systems [
I am thankful to Green tech engineering and Construction Company especially Eng Haidari and Eng Rahimi. A special appreciation is extended to the Department of Hydrogeology, ministry of energy and water, Kabul Afghanistan especially Eng Aziz and Eng Ahmad Massud to provide laboratory facilities to carry out this work. Special thanks go to Mr Ali Ahmad Rezaye and Eng Enayatullah Tani for the cooperation and help to coordinates during field survey, sampling, transportation of samples. Great thanks go Eng Basir Traki, GIS expert for providing maps. Finally I am grateful of constructive comments of the reviewers.
Rezaye, F. and Shivanna (2018) Studies on Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristics on Quality of Spring Water in Haji Gak Iron Ore Mine, Bamyan Province, Central Afghanistan. Open Journal of Geology, 8, 313-332. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2018.83020
Take 50 ml sample in conical flask. If the sample is having higher alkalinity, use smaller volumes diluted to 50 ml, add 2 ml of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution in the sample then add 100 to 200 mg of murexide indicator a pink color develops. Titrate against ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) solution until the pink color changes to purple. For better judgment of end point, compare the purple color with the distilled water blank titration end point.
Ca = X × 400.8 mlofSample , [ mg ml ] (1)
where,
X = volume of EDTA used.
Find out the volume of EDTA used in calcium determination. Also find out the volume of EDTA used in hardness (Ca+Mg) determination with same volume of the sample as taken in the calcium determination.
Mg = Y − X × 400.8 VolumeofSample × 1.645 , [ mg ml ] (2)
where,
Y = EDTA used in hardness determination.
X = EDTA used in calcium determination for the same volume of the sample.
Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask and add 2 ml of K2CrO4 solution. Titrate the contents against 0.02 N AgNO3 until a persistent red thing appears.
Cl = ( ml × N ) of AgNO 3 × 1000 × 35.5 mlofSample , [ mg ml ] (3)
where,
ml = burette reading.
Take 100 ml of sample in a conical flask and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. If the solution remains colorless, phenolphthalein alkalinity = 0. If the color changed to pink after addition of phenolphthalein, titrate it with 0.1 N HCl until the color disappears at end point, this is phenolphthalein alkalinity (PA).
PA = ( A × Normality ) of HCl × 1000 × 50 ml of Sample , [ mg ml ] (4)
where,
A = ml of HCl used with only phenolphthalein.
Take 100 ml of sample in a conical flask and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. If the solution remains colorless, phenolphthalein alkalinity = 0. Now add 2 - 3 drops of methyl orange to the same sample and continue the titration further, until the yellow color changes to pink at the end point. This is total alkalinity (TA).
TA = ( B × Normality ) of HCl × 1000 × 50 mlofSample , [ mg ml ] (5)
where,
B = ml of total HCl used with only phenolphthalein and methyl orange.
Concentration of carbonates, Bicarbonates and Hydroxyl ions in a sample can be determined from the phenolphthalein alkalinity and total alkalinity values (