Professional social work takes place in certain social contexts and is governed by specific laws, social policies, cultural practices of a given locality, and accumulated professional knowledge called “practice knowledge” (
A group of social work researchers have presented four “Modern Challenges” that are important in the administration of (human) services. These are: 1) better identify the competencies of social work administration and social policy, which recognize their dual nature; 2) promote inclusion and involvement in service organisations; 3) improve service pay and equity and 4) decide whether or not to engage in guardianship. Recommendations to address these challenges include broadening concepts in both administrative and social policy with additional related competencies and accompanying changes to the social work curriculum; moving towards a strong paradigm of inclusion within social work practice and academia; efforts for higher wages and higher equity, and aggressive advocacy for the adoption of social work skills and mindsets. Important factors in these developments are the use of technology, the promotion of mobility, the harmonisation of qualifications and cooperation with service users (
Following the European tradition, the responsibility for social work (well-being) in the public sector is based on laws, the assessment of those in need, the application of appropriate methods without forgetting the goals and values of social work. The nation state and local authorities share responsibility for the provision of public services, observing the objectives of the European welfare model. The public sector of the nation state can be seen in the European three-level governance model as a “catalyst”, where there is an interaction of external influences and local responsibilities, the most important objective of which is to monitor the needs of the local population. Giving our fellow citizens a well-organised opportunity to participate in society supports democratic processes. Employability and activation are linked to the European welfare model, where social services are the main tool of modern social work in Europe.
Social security guarantees a person at least a minimum income in case of loss of employment, illness, birth of a child, incapacity for work and old age. Social welfare is aimed at improving the lives of the most vulnerable members of society and preventing poverty. Social protection measures help a person to put his life back on track.
This article discusses the responsibility of public social work as a provider of social security, including social care and services. It examines how the responsibility of the nation state is shared in ensuring social well-being and explores how the provision of necessary social services to residents can be predicted.
Accountability is ubiquitous in social systems, and its necessity is increased in formal organizations that supposedly aim to predict and control behavior. Today’s public authorities need to show value diversity, understand and respect different cultures, and design and deliver culturally relevant and responsive programs and services (
From the perspective of NPM, accountability is a strategic approach to expectation management: “Public administration accountability includes the means by which public authorities and their employees manage the diverse expectations that arise inside and outside the organization” (
Accountability consists of both setting up (narrative) and creating identity (a self-portrait that is painted when people give and ask for results). The sociologist Harold Garfinkel asserts that each institution organizes its activities in such a way that its characteristics, as practical activities, are organized in such a way that they are identifiable, countable, recorded, analyzed—in short, the institution has accountability (
Public sector social work is regulated by law. The law as “a set of rules by which a civilized society maintains orders and regulates its internal affairs both between the individual and others, as well as between individuals and the state”, and many authors emphasize the dimension of social control of law. Social welfare laws and regulations control when and how the basic needs of social welfare recipients are met (
Evaluation of public sector activities is carried out using standards. What substantive standards apply when assessing whether a participant has acted in an acceptable manner? There are many different standards available; depending on the role, context and nature of the forum. Often several standards are applied. One of the most common typologies of accountability was developed by Romzek and Dubnick back in 1987. They analyze accountability as follows: “Measures by which public authorities and their employees manage the different expectations that arise within and outside the organization” (
Public organizations today are subject to many different control mechanisms, and analysts worry that they often suffer from “responsibility overload” (
Modern professional practice and literature distinguish between the professional practice of social work professionals and amateurs/non-professionals, which are generally associated with charitable work (
Functional responsibility refers to the obligation of social workers to perform their duties effectively and efficiently, adhering to professional standards and meeting organizational goals. Ethical accountability emphasizes the moral and ethical dimensions of social work practice, requiring social workers to uphold ethical principles, respect clients’ rights, and promote social justice.
Researchers have noted that in a situation where social work education/degrees do not exist, mistakes and wrong practices come (
This study employs a case study approach to investigate accountability in administrative social work within the Estonian welfare model. Case studies are valuable for understanding complex phenomena within their natural context, recognizing the interplay of socio-political and cultural-symbolic factors (
A purposefully selected case can be generalized (
The case study includes meta-data (publicly available documentation) and public data of new local governments (Viru-Nigula, Lüganuse, Mustvee) in the sample in the period 2020-2022.
When assessing the belonging of a task, it is more common to use the principle of subsidiarity from the principle of traditional division of competences. Article 4(3) of the European Charter of Local Self-Government states that this principle as follows: Public duties are generally performed in preference by the authorities closest to the citizen. When assigning responsibilities to another authority, consideration should be given to the scope and nature of the task and to the requirements of efficiency and economy (
Since 1995, according to the Social Welfare Act, local governments have been responsible for organising the care of children, the elderly, the disabled and other people in need, and for organising the maintenance of nursing homes, shelters and other social welfare institutions. The task of a local government is to pay the subsistence benefits and need-based family allowance granted by the central authority from the funds received from the state budget to the rural municipality or city budget. In addition, the local government organises the provision of emergency assistance. The duties of the local government include establishing guardianship and child protection.
The Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund started operating in 2002. Payment of insurance indemnities began in 2003. The Ministry of Social Affairs has granted the authority to provide certain state services to the Social Insurance Board (aids, social rehabilitation, special care services and services related to children: substitute home service, care of a child in the family, service of a closed child care institution). The Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund and the Social Insurance Board are institutions of the Ministry of Social Affairs of the Republic of Estonia and both are institutions mediating social protection.
Since 2015, work capacity reform has been implemented through both institutions. The reason for the reform was the year-on-year increase in the number of incapacity pensioners in Estonia, which in 2007 exceeded 110,000 and reached 110,665 in 2008. The aim of the work ability reform was to comprehensively support the employment opportunities of people with health impairments and reduced work capacity by providing them with supportive services. As of 1 January 2017, work ability is assessed instead of incapacity for work, which is carried out by the Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund. Along with the assessment of work ability, there is an opportunity to apply for disability. In order to compensate for the expenses related to disability, a medicine allowance (so-called disability allowance) is paid through the Social Insurance Board.
From the funds of the Unemployment Insurance Fund, a work ability benefit is paid to persons with partial or no work ability. From April 2024, together with old-age pensions, the rate of work ability benefits increased. As of 1 April 2024, the daily rate of work ability allowance is 20.57 euros, of which the allowance for one calendar day is:
In the course of the work ability reform, the structure of the provision of rehabilitation was changed. The social rehabilitation service is provided from the budget of the Social Insurance Board : a) a child, b) a person of working age with no work ability and c) an old-age pensioner. Occupational rehabilitation is provided through the Unemployment Insurance Fund to persons with partial work ability.
As a result of the work ability reform, the services of the Social Insurance Board may have people who do not have to have a disability, but have a health problem (= no work ability). The services have different levels of support with the aim of providing assistance to a person at home, in the community, in public spaces and in a care institution. Special care services include a daily life support service and a assisted living service, the public knows these activities as day care center activities. In addition, the employment support service, the community living service and the round-the-clock special care service, which is mainly the field of activity of “AS Hoolekandeteenused” (RT I, 30. 12. 2015, 5th entry into force 01. 01. 2020) The state-owned enterprise “AS Hoolekandeteenused” has used the money from the European Structural Funds for the construction of new, modern houses in cities and closed the service sites located in the old manor complexes.
In order to receive the special care service, the person himself or his guardian must put the person in a queue. The queues are long, as the number of service places is limited, and the number of places has not increased since 2022 (directing funds to help Ukrainian war refugees). Local governments do not have sufficient information about those who have special care services, if the local government itself has not been the applicant and provider of special care services. Only in 2021, the Social Insurance Board started sending information to local governments about which disabled persons live in their administrative territory.
The tasks of the Social Insurance Board include the management of state benefits, including social benefits for people with disabilities, including children (social security tools), services for a child in need (
The social welfare practice of the local government consists of: 1) State support management: Local governments administer subsistence benefits allocated from the state budget, carer’s allowance for a disabled child and, since 2014, needs-based family benefits in accordance with national laws. The management of subsistence support has been the most important task of local care. 2) Decentralized social services: Provision of special care services financed from the budget of the Social Insurance Board, such as day care centers and home visit services. 3) Compulsory and voluntary social services: Under the Local Government Social Welfare Act, 13 compulsory social services are provided, as well as other voluntary services. Although direct employment with clients, such as social counselling, is one of the main services, it is not reflected in public information and is not defined by law as a social service.
4) Financial contributions: Grants paid from the local government budget are distributed on the basis of the application principle: a) on the basis of a characteristic (e.g. age, disability) and b) on the basis of the situation (e.g. coping problems).
There are four groups of adult target groups that need personalised services: older people (elderly), adults with mental health problems, people with learning disabilities and adults with (physical) disabilities. The services provided can be defined on the basis of current wordings and guidelines as follows: social services providing ancillary assistance, close-up and family care, institutional care.
Social services providing personal assistance are services that provide primary support and do not include elements of care (home service, support person service and personal assistant service). Provided in a person’s home or to support subsistence at home.
In order to apply for home care and support person services, a person’s application is sufficient, the prerequisite for applying for the service of a personal assistant and the care service of an adult is that the person has a disability.
The three social services providing ancillary assistance do not include care, the form of close care in the local government is the care service of an adult. Close-up care is not officially defined in Estonia. Close-up care can be understood as a service that includes care (washing, hygiene, etc.) and corresponds to the English term care.; caregiver—position in a nursing home or hospital (medicine), required caregiver education. In recent years, an assistant caregiver curriculum has emerged in the training market, which brings down professional requirements for starting a job. Taking into account the demographic situation, it is precisely close-up care that should be the service with the largest volume in the local government and available regardless of whether the person has a disability or not.
The criteria for social benefits and services published by local governments, i.e. the information on websites, are difficult for a rural municipality resident to understand (who is the entitled person? on the basis of which a person can apply for a social benefit or service).
In the period from 1995 to 2022, local governments were not obliged to hire a person with professional education as a social worker, except for a child protection specialist. The client’s decision-making function follows the principle of collegial decision-making, and the decision-making process at the client level is politicized. The problem was that the social benefits distributed from the budgets of local governments are doubly politicized: 1) at the budget level, when the budget is drawn up, and 2) at the decision-making level, where the type and amount of support is defined and a decision on allocation is made (the client’s case migrates between the different structures of the municipality).
Using a collective style in the decision-making process of client work, in these situations there is a lack of understanding of the social worker’s code of ethics, human rights, human dignity, lack of skills and knowledge of social work. Therefore, if the local government—the council and the rural municipality government and the committees—do not understand the nature and objectives of social work, it can easily happen that those in real need are deprived of services. Most importantly, the principle of collective responsibility has continued in the 21st century, without giving the profession of social work the opportunity to develop independently in Estonia.
The relevance of internal evaluation, i.e. the evaluation of social services of a self-directed organisation (including local social benefits), can be viewed on the basis of a quality guide. The existence of a quality guide is mandatory for local governments since 2018.
On the websites of the six municipalities in the control sample, the local quality guide for social services was not available.
Based on the study, it can be argued that there are no justified criteria for allocating local social benefits, on the basis of which they are awarded. There are also no control and evaluation systems in the municipalities that describe the impact of the distribution of grants in solving a specific case. A similar problem applies to the evaluation of the performance of social services, their evaluation criteria have not been developed. The activities of the social committees of local authorities do not include tasks related to evaluation.
Control over local self-government, after the restoration of independence, county governments were representatives of the central power, in each county there was a social department. In the early years, county governments had independent budgets, from which money was allocated for the restoration of the social welfare system. In each county, this was done differently, there were no statewide agreements. County governments took over the administrative responsibility of nursing homes and orphanages and conducted local government supervision as a representative of the state government. The responsibilities and opportunities of county governments were steadily reduced over the years. County governments were abolished with the 2018 administrative reform.
The development plan must understand how and when the local government will build a school, kindergarten, or nursing home in order to develop the local environment and provide public social services. The Development Plan is a political document that must respect both the local and the EU’s legal framework for prosperity. According to the European Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Estonian Constitution, services and benefits for local residents are guaranteed by law. The right to assistance must be provided by law, and the exercise of this right must not depend on the region and local government in which the individual or family lives, because, as previously stated, citizens have the right to know what types of services or other forms of support are available to them from the local government.
Fragmented System and Unclear Responsibility:
The Estonian welfare system is characterized by fragmentation and unclear division of responsibilities between the central government and local authorities. This creates challenges in ensuring the accessibility and quality of social services. The lack of clear criteria for allocating local social benefits, as evidenced by the absence of specific guidelines and the reliance on individual assessments by social workers in some municipalities, can lead to inconsistencies and potential inequities in service provision.
Limited Professional Autonomy:
Social workers in Estonian local governments have limited professional autonomy, with their decision-making often influenced by political considerations and the involvement of non-professionals in social welfare committees. This can hinder their ability to advocate for clients’ needs and make independent professional judgments.
Opaque Processes and Lack of Evaluation:
The accountability processes in Estonian social welfare lack transparency and consistency. The absence of clear evaluation mechanisms for social services and benefits makes it difficult to assess their impact and effectiveness. The lack of publicly available quality guidelines and internal evaluation reports further contributes to the opacity of the system (
Impact of Abolishing County Governments:
The abolition of county governments in 2018 led to a shift in supervisory responsibilities for local social services. The transfer of these responsibilities to the Social Insurance Board raised concerns about the potential loss of local oversight and the ability to address regional disparities in social welfare provision. The long wait times for special care services, coupled with the limited information available to local governments about individuals receiving these services, highlight the challenges in coordinating care and ensuring timely access to support.
According to the Social Welfare Act, the target groups of social welfare are children, the elderly and people with disabilities and other special needs |
||||
Social-Insurance Board |
Local government |
The Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund |
Health Insurance Fund |
|
General regulation |
Social Welfare Act (Adopted 09.12.2015) |
§ 14. Social care Procedure for the granting of permanent aid |
Labour Market Services and Benefits Act |
Health Insurance Fund and Health Insurance Act |
Client |
Child Person with special needs Age-pensioner |
Population-a local resident on the basis of the register |
Person of working age |
Availability of health insurance |
The process of becoming a customer |
You have to become a customer |
You have to become a customer |
You have to become a customer |
Payment of social tax |
Assessor |
SKA Case-Organizer |
Social-Field Officer/Specialist |
TVH Evaluation Commission On the basis of documents, without seeing the client; With regard to the unemployed, the Unemployment Insurance Fund Case-Organizer |
Family doctor |
Evaluation- Instrument |
SKA evaluation Questionnaire |
Assessment of operational capacity (KOV questionnaire) or income control |
Assessment of operational capacity WHO questionnaire |
Methods within the competence of the family doctor |
Decision-making/decision-maker |
SKA Case-Organizer |
Subsistence The decision to receive the benefit is made by a social worker from the 2020s onwards or Official Local Social Affairs Committee on the receipt of other benefits and services |
Case-Organizer |
Family doctor |
Restrictions |
Dependence on state budget funds |
Related to income |
Person with partial capacity for work or registered unemployed person |
Availability of health insurance |
Invisible |
People don’t know how to apply for services |
The subsistence threshold is too low |
Long-term Unemployed |
Uninsured persons |
Service impact assessment |
No evaluation instrument |
No evaluation instrument |
Working of a person |
Healthy life expectancy |
Addressing Long Wait Times
The long wait times for special care services are a significant concern. Several factors contribute to this issue, including limited funding, a shortage of qualified personnel, and bureaucratic hurdles in the application process. Potential solutions include increasing funding for special care services, streamlining the application process, and investing in training and recruitment of social care professionals.
Decentralization and Accountability in Estonian Municipalities
The performance of public functions defined by law is incorporated into the constitutional formula of executive power, legislation, and procedures. Public institutions are characterized by heterogeneity and act as custodians of history, the essence of politics, and determinants of future development, providing stability (
Local and central governments follow different principles. While central governments are responsible for managing the state as a whole, local governments focus on public services affecting citizens’ daily lives, such as garbage collection, road maintenance, or public social services. The administration of local government provides functions and services defined by the central government or allows the management of functions and services provided by others, that is, mechanisms of political responsibility (
Accountability and the European Social Model
EU Member States (including local authorities) have set themselves the objective of approaching the European social model (
The implementation of social cohesion is one of the basic equations that presupposes economic and technological development, training, production, mobility, growth of wealth and, consequently, the creation of social cohesion, well-being in accordance with the cultural pattern of each society. In Europe as a whole, it is important to develop social inclusion policies, measures and indicators that are in line with EU standards and practices. The 20 principles of the European Pillar of Social Rights provide a compass for guiding nation-states towards a strong social Europe and shaping the vision of a new social (social) rulebook. It reflects the principles and rights essential to ensure fair and well-functioning labor markets and welfare systems in the 21st century Europe (
Challenges and Opportunities in Estonian Social Work
The Estonian welfare model, predicting the provision of social services to clients, is challenging. According to
Public social services are designed to ensure that vulnerable groups have the opportunity to participate in social life (
The trend of the 21st century is to put the emphasis on the quality of social services. In the pursuit of the quality of social services and social welfare, it is proposed to establish quality assurance principles in Europe as a whole. The first point is to turn accountability into a fundamental requirement for ensuring quality service. Public authorities should request that service providers have sufficient seniority and have a representative of the reporting service provider in order to be able to clarify the established arrangements to ensure compliance with legislation and standards (
In parallel, the Member States of the European Union have introduced market-oriented public reform strategies aimed at increasing efficiency and reducing red tape and public spending. The new public administration (NPM) opened the way for the inclusion of private technologies in public administration. The goals of business management are to minimize costs and promote sales through holistic planning, effective organization, effective management, and high productivity (
Future Research Directions:
Future research could explore the perspectives of social workers, clients, and policymakers on accountability in social welfare. Comparative studies with other countries could also provide valuable insights for improving the Estonian system.
Accountability is a synthesis of the credibility of the individual, institutions and the social welfare system. Accountability in social work requires two dimensions, professionalism and the knowledge-based nature of social work practice (
The legislative regulation of the European Union forms the basis for the jurisdiction of a Member State. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union brings together the most important individual freedoms and rights of EU citizens in a single legally binding document that entered into force with the adoption of the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009. Fundamental rights are individual rights that are independent of the beneficiary’s family ties.
In 2024, the institutions under the administration of the Ministry of Social Affairs as the Ministry of Economic Affairs (The Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund, Social Insurance Board, National Institute for Health Development) and in addition to them local governments are involved in the organisation of welfare. The Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund and the Social Insurance Board, as organisations under the administration of ministries, implement the socio-political objectives of both the European Union and the nation state. Client groups are divided between institutions on the basis of age and the person’s ability to work. The organisation of work in institutions is different: while the Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund deals with its clientele on a regular basis, the target group must have the knowledge and skills of how to reach the service regarding the services received from the Social Insurance Board.
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union uses the terms social assistance and housing benefit, social assistance is often an inseparable combination of various measures (financial support and social services) (
The application and distribution of social services and benefits provided by local authorities are often opaque. According to the Family Law Act, family members have a mutual maintenance obligation, which in practice is the basis for granting and receiving social assistance. The procedure for applying for social benefits and the evaluation of results need to be evidence-based in order to create mutual trust and balance in the community.
Support persons and social service providers in local governments often work under an authorisation or employment contract, which means that they do not have the rights arising from the employment contract. Cooperation and partnership, as well as the use of digital technologies, are important in the development of social services.
This research highlights the critical need for reforms to strengthen accountability and improve the effectiveness of social work within the Estonian welfare system. Clearer definitions of social work roles, stronger professional autonomy for social workers, and a more client-centred approach are crucial for ensuring that social welfare services meet the needs of Estonian citizens effectively and ethically.