The Footprint of Walking and Street Activities to the Architecture of the Street: The Case of Dar es Salaam

Street and the activities bound within it associate the social, cultural, economic and spatial significance with walking, apart from its mobility aspect of moving from point A to B. The conventional requirement for street design provides for distinctive and defined spatial organization, visual expression and functions. Given to socio-economic condition of the population in cities of least developed countries, street has become part of platform for both walking and economic activities. In this respect, the streets are exposed to transforming formal and informal socio-economic activities amidst the hardly isolated function of walking. Such street dynamics have influenced the street organization and hence the architecture of the street questioning the authenticity of conventional design orthodox. The case study is done in Dar es Salaam city to acquire empirical data that provide insight on such phenomenon. It is revealed that the influence of socio-economic activities in streets overrules the conventional requirements such that they shape the walking condition and the architecture of the street. Thus, it is concluded that the design for walking has to take into consideration the socio-economic context of the locality and its impact to the architecture of the street in order to achieve convenience of both walking and the street visual expression.


Introduction
Walking is still a crucial means of mobility in cities of developing countries where the majority of residents constitute the low income cadre. Walking con-How to cite this paper: Bahendwa, F., Rimisho, H., & Katama, A. (2019) stitute cheap and affordable means of mobility creating opportunity for useful urban street for walking people and public space which entertain socio-economic activities dominated by street formal and informal trading alongside walking.
Such spatial settings contravene the legal and conventional design conditions which require strict separation of urban activities and provision of defined street architecture. The walking activity and other street dynamics create spatial condition which requires professional explanations in order to contribute new insight in street design.
Walking needs less sophisticated infrastructure and an important link to other modes of mobility since all means of transport start and end with walking (Blaga, 2013;WHO, 2011). While walking connects people with urban space, activities and hence influences space quality, street pattern, status of enclosure and configuration. In addition, cities are best experienced by walking people at street level who engage in various urban activities. In this respect urban space cannot be thought of without adequately considering the streets, urban activities and walking people which make the urban space and street an important subject of study (Blaga, 2013;Alfonzo, 2005;Transport for London, 2004). The use of urban space and the street reflect social, economic and cultural factors within the local context implying the importance to analyse the link of walking and the urban activities to street architecture. Furthermore, walking and urban activities are linked with environmental, health, economic, investment and design issues which are directly associated with physical urban space and the architecture of the street (Reyer, Fina, Siedentop, & Schlicht, 2014;Planning Institute Australia, 2003;National Association of City Transportation Officials, 2013;Wundelich, 2008;Reyer, Fina, Siedentop, & Schlicht, 2014). Such broader perspective of sustainable consideration in city design discourses has to address the improved design efficiency of urban street.
The concept of the street, walking and its architectural significance A street as a thread, path or road bound by buildings provides communication, interaction and movement of people, goods and services while it shelters the outdoor activities. Streets are dynamic spaces that adapt change over time to support environmental sustainability, public health, economic activity and cultural significance. Urban street plays an important role in affecting the microclimate of the street and hence the city at large (Shishegar, 2013;Bourbia & Fouzia, 2010). It is also the platform where walking dominates the means of communication, interaction and other activities. It represent the common attributes of the users and facilitates communication and interaction between people and groups and thus serve to bind together the social order of the local urban community (Shortell, 2016;Ramsden, 2014;Wallmann, Bucksch, & Froboese, 2011;Wineman, Kabo, & Davis, 2009;Hamilton-Baillie, 2008;Moughtin, 2003;Ben-Joseph, 1995).
The design of street is associated with walking convenience, connecting the integrity of local community and the strangers from other parts of the city F. Bahendwa et al. DOI: 10.4236/cus.2019.73016 323 Current Urban Studies (Cubukcu, 2013;Alfonzo, Boarnet, Day, Mcmillan, & Anderson, 2008;Jacobs, 1961). Thus, the street elements and features which enhance human scale and   proportions are encouraged since it provides convenient opportunity for waking, standing, sitting, recreating, experiencing the space, avoiding unintended view, facilitating architectural detailing and improving the sense of place (Wundelich, 2008;Levy, 2006;Moughtin, 2003). The street have the component of serving the users' everyday requirements which stand as the basis of street function and activities, physical configuration, quality of space and hence the architecture of space (Kärrholm, Johansson, Lindelöw, & Ferreira, 2014;Reyer, Fina, Siedentop, & Schlicht, 2014;Blaga, 2013). The street professional variables and the prospects to achieve them depend on the active influence in control of urban space by the formal or informal regimes, especially in the cities of least developed countries. In a nutshell, the role of professional design approach to develop architectural outcome may be affected by the dynamic nature of both outdoor and indoor activities on street, creating the need for further study of unpredictable nature of the street.
There is more recognition in design professional perspective that the features of street architecture are not static due to evolutionary nature of the street (Hamilton-Baillie, 2008;Moughtin, 2003). This result from the common urban processes where contestation for space use and exploitation of its value lead to space dynamics by which space and time determine the direction of the architecture and pattern of the street. The transformation of the street involves a variety of actors such as property owners, business owners, street users, professionals and policymakers. The combination of socio-economic forces, cultural effects and the complex interaction of various actors in competition to extract the space value affect the function and physical configuration of space. In case of cities in less developed countries, the contestation of formal and informal processes may add to the dynamics of the street with the effect in terms of quality, space experience, enjoyment and sense of place.
The street quality is further associated with factors such as safety, comfort, connectivity, reliability and pleasurability which affect walkability, aesthetic value, functional requirements, the market forces, socio-cultural dimension and others (Vestergaard, Olesen, & Helmer, 2014;National Association of City Transportation Officials, 2013;Makki, Surat, Che-Ani, Farkisch, & Mokhtarian, 2012;Mehta, 2008;Alfonzo, Boarnet, Day, Mcmillan, & Anderson, 2008). Koohsari et al. (2013) note that parameters such as physical urban environment, users' self-preferences and design aspects affect the connection among walking people, urban activities and the enclosing spatial character in supplementing each other. While the contribution of professional designers in effecting the architecture of the street could not be ignored, the influence of other actors who are directly associated with everyday processes of the street have a key influential role on the function and physical configuration of the streets which need to be assessed (Temelová & Novák, 2011). In this regard, walking as communicable,

Methodology
The literature search is done to present the relevant concepts, theories and perspectives on urban street activities including walking, the socio-economic activities, urban space and their effect to urban design. From the fact that the study is space specific, the case study method is adopted where Dar es Salaam city is se- Issues associated with peoples' desire, feeling, behaviour, attitude and opinion, which cannot be acquired through observations, are sought through interviews. The target respondents are the walkers (pedestrians) and the petty traders who form the majority of activities taking place in urban streets. The urban planners, designers and managers at city authority level are interviewed on the walking status based on street design, urban design and planning respective city. In particular, the interview for walkers covers the walkers' preference of walking, the preferred mode of transport, urban places preferred, feeling of safety, comfort, satisfaction, sensuous effect to the space and the attitude towards informal activities in urban space. The petty traders are interviewed on the criteria of choice of locations, quality of space occupied, acquisition of customers and the effect of their presence to the walkers. In order to enhance reliability of response, based on studied average of 100 walkers passing on a given point of street per hour, at least 120 walkers and 60 petty traders are interviewed in Dar es Salaam. The distribution of respondents is 40 walkers and 20 petty traders along the selected less populated case study route forming Makunganya, Indira Gandhi and Aggrey streets in the city centre and 80 walkers and 40 petty traders along the highly populated case study route forming Nyamwezi and Tandamti Streets in Kariakoo. The interviews and observations done at sample streets in the city centre are meant to draw a clue on walking condition and the character of socio-economic activities in the street which can give a wider view of spatial condition to the architecture of the street. This provides the basis for making conclusions and general explanation concerning the individual street and the whole city.

Result
The presentation of results includes the findings regarding the observation outcomes on walking characteristics, the inventory of socio-economic activities, space use and quality. The reflection and perspectives from the walkers and petty traders on walking environment, the nature of street activities and street characteristics are also presented. Further, the discussion on the walking condition as well as street activities is done to uncover their significance to design and hence architecture.

The General Aspects of Walking and Activities in Streets
This part provides the observation results on the street content including the

Availability, continuity, Quality and Condition of walkways
Most of streets in Dar es Salaam city centre are noted with walkways, which are dedicated for pedestrians but in some areas the construction sites hoardings, street vendors and the temporary car parking interfere the walkway continuity (see Figure 1).
In some few cases, the barriers to prevent car from parking are provided (see  In the streets of Kariakoo, the most populated urban space in Dar es Salaam, it is observed that walkways are available in most streets but they are dominated by other uses such as car parking, street vending and other social activities (see Figure 3). In this situation, people are forced to walk along the car carriage way.
It was noted that some walkways were lacking routine maintenance. Sharp corners are also noted as the result of newly developed structures regardless of the intended curved corners, which would provide easy flow, respect to natural human movement, safe turning and continuity. Few streets had no walkways thus making pedestrians to use the same car carriage ways with motor vehicles and motorbikes.

Social-Economic Activities and Walking Behaviour
The street petty trading is the main street activities occupying most walking spaces. The activities range from arranging of goods on ground, creation of simple display tables or holders or producing makeshift structures to accommodate goods for sale which also enhance weather free business operations (see Figure 4).   to be socially and culturally acceptable and thus not considered as interference to street activities. This is one of street dynamics contributed by the street activities acceptable to street users which momentarily change the pattern, organisation and the use of street (see Figure 5).       Source: Authors' construction. Figure 11. The street enclosures from the highly concentrated space with walking and socio-economic activities to less concentrated where separation of activities can be made. Where less concentration of walking and socio-economic activities is experienced, more of architectural image of the designer is maintained and less effect of dynamics of walking and socio-economic activities.

Street Furniture and Vegetation
Certain streets with streetlights; ramps, stairs, benches, walkway safety rails, furniture and vegetation are noticed to be provided and maintained by individuals owners or investors on the adjoining buildings. At Jamartin mosque along Indira Gandhi Street there is provision of streetlights and planted which enhance scenery and facilitate walking (see Figure 13). However, there is hardly planted vegetation in Kariakoo area. Generally, street furniture such as street lights, street benches, ramps, safety rails, statues, water fountains, vegetation and others are hardly provided in most cases.

The Street Users' Perspective
This part presents the walkers' and the petty traders' perspective on the effect of street to their activities. It records the users' opinions on how and why environmental, Source: Authors' construction.

Walking condition (from the walkers perspective in Dar es Salaam)
A total amount of interviewed walkers is 120. With regards to Figure 14, looking at walking behaviour, many interviewed walkers prefer to walk for shorter distances (1 to 3 kilometres) and may use public transport for longer distances. Only few respondents seem to prefer walking for both shorter and longer distances. Saving transport cost is one of important motive for tolerating longer walking distance in this case. It is noted that before people get to the city centre, they usually pre-plan on how they would make movements within the city centre. It is revealed that more than half of interviewed walkers prefer to walk than using public transport when they move in the city centre. One third of respondents indicated that they strictly walk when they are within the city centre and very few claim to use public transport whenever possible when they move in city centre. Considering that strategic locations of public transport stations may facilitate walking convenience, more than two third of interviewed walker are satisfied with locations of bus stop in the city centre. They also indicated that other public transport they use apart from daladala are motorbike, two third; bajaji, almost one third; and taxi, about one tenth. More than half of those who go to city centre using their private cars expressed the difficulty faced to secure parking space near their destination. The feeling of safety is one of important factor when one walks in order to enhance walking convenience and comfort. In this case, most walkers interviewed felt the lack of safety because they mostly walk on car carriageway due to obstructions created by petty traders, parked cars, landlord security restrictions and others on walkways.
Source: Authors' construction. Trading condition in walking space (from the petty traders perspective in Dar es Salaam) A total number of interviewed petty traders is 60. As noted in Figure 15 Nine tenth of petty traders interviewed consider their choice of trading space suitable for display of their goods and access to customers.
Only half of interviewed petty traders considered the physical quality as one of the factor for choice of trading space. The aspect which held greater importance in choice of trading space is the access to customers and hence guaranteeing earning of an income (see Figure 16). More than three quarter of interviewed petty traders acknowledge that walkers are complaining about their interference with their walking comfort. However, the petty traders understand their interference with the walking but they claim to engage in that activity as the only way to make an income and meet their basic need for living in the city. In that respect, about two third of interviewed petty traders indicated that the need to make income is prioritized than interfering with the walking activity. The petty traders seem to be content with the income they make at their location such that more than two third of interviewed petty traders indicated that they are not ready to move if the city authority provide the offer of legal and appropriate alternative location. This appears to refer to past experience where the city authority Source: Authors' construction. Figure 15. Petty traders reactions to issues related to space use, interaction with walkers and the street space condition.
Source: Field photos. Figure 16. Trading location depends on exposure and access to customers where walking people are the main target.

City Design Approach
The interview with planning officials in Dar es Salaam city indicate that the design approach adopted emphasise the holistic provision of basic facilities and infrastructure sufficient to ensure efficient operation of the street functions and the city as a whole. Such holistic components include commercial, residential, industrial, institutional and mixed use zones. Such zones are connected with various basic services including road networks which compose street at various capacities. Streets appear as the result of road provision and the series of building along the road and not specifically preconceived street design which consider the user socio-economic context. Walking, as the major mobility mode at street level, is not conceived sufficiently as the influential design tools to street spatial organization and form. It is also noted that the programmes of provision and improvement of road networks in cities hardly consider walking as the means of transport and opportunity for the users to experience the city space. The evidence of less integration of walking as integral part of street design is a rare provision of physical and visual walking features. Unauthorised petty trading in city is one of common practices on streets. In professional perspective, it is "not acceptable" as they miss professional design and planning values. The persistence of petty trading interference with the planned land use such as formal street business, vehicular movement, pedestrian passage, car parking, street image and others has created the norms, tradition and common trends dominating the everyday practices and physical configuration of the streets. In this respect, petty trading practices are mostly part of city streets where street walking and other activities are shaped. The petty trading practices address the social groups which are less accommodated by the design regime forcing their way to search for survival within the socio-economic and cultural reality of city. This has affected the organization, function and the image of city streets and the walking condition. These informal practices and city realities have to be taken as important input in reconceptualising the design approach to achieve relevant urban street and city space commensurate to local context.

Discussion
Apart from the street professional design represented by the conventional design principles, some unconventional design features are contributed by the building owners, tenants and the informal actors. This creates a spectrum of several ac- with walking efficiency while the walkers are reliable customers to them is the complex relationship beyond professional conception but afford to enhance social order in the confinement of the street as noted by some analysts (Shortell, 2016;Ramsden, 2014;Wallmann, Bucksch, & Froboese, 2011;Wineman, Kabo, & Davis, 2009;Moughtin, 2003;Ben-Joseph, 1995). This system of street evolution tends to fill the gap of deficiency in professional approach and culture of control the design and maintenance of street architecture.
The intervention to shape the street to meet certain requirements involves the interplay of individual and collective requirements of the street actors which justify the contestation of different groups to exploit the space value (Hamilton-Baillie, 2008;Methorst, Gerlach, Boenke, & Leven, 2007;Harvey, 2007;Moughtin, 2003). The competition of outdoor trading and its quest to attract customers pose challenge to walking convenience, comfort and safety. The intensity of commercial activities on street tend to promote walking, display and sale of goods and services both indoor and outdoor which improve liveability and vibrancy which overshadow some other quality weaknesses.
Formal provision of walking and parking and outdoor furniture are not consistent which allow the street users to informally improvise the combination of street character as enclosure which play the role of attracting walkers despite deficiency on quality of walking environment. The higher response of walkers as part of customers to engage in street trading indicates important connection of the actors and its impact to the street vibrancy. Such phenomenon is supported by the need to address the common attributes in order to facilitate interaction among people and groups in street space (Shortell, 2016;Ramsden, 2014;Wallmann, Bucksch, & Froboese, 2011;Wineman, Kabo, & Davis, 2009;Moughtin, 2003;Ben-Joseph, 1995). In streets where such connection is high, the concentration of outdoor petty trading is greater such that the display of goods and makeshift structure dominate the architecture of the street. The triggered commercial dynamics on street space dominate the physical configuration and architecture of the street. Such phenomenon is mostly ignored by the architectural perspective which conceives the notion of control of uninterrupted architectural image.
Quality and safety of space for walking being rated low by the walkers are yet rendered less important since concentration of space use is high which reflect the users' socio-cultural preferences as noted by Koohsari et al. (2013). Contrary to street professional design which provides separation of walking and driving to enhance safety, quality and comfort, the highly occupied street by the formal and informal activities transform the street to shared space for walking, cycling, biking and driving. As note by Hamilton-Baillie (2008)  Street, the concentration of trading activities is one of important factors encouraging massive walkers which tend to make the comfort aspect to take the secondary priority. The demand for trading activities have expanded to the extent of shaping the architecture of the street which depict the display of goods, temporary structures and the interaction of traders, walkers, drivers and riders. This reflect to everyday aspiration achieved by the street contributing to its vibrancy (Kärrholm, Johansson, Lindelöw, & Ferreira, 2014;Reyer, Fina, Siedentop, & Schlicht, 2014;Blaga, 2013). The combination of socio-economic activities, cultural expression and physical outlook complement the architecture of the street.
The evidence shows that the pre-designed architectural image of the street can be influenced by the formal, informal and cultural features as part of street dynamics. These aspects have to be known and accommodated in professional design discourse for urban space and street to reconcile appropriately with local, traditional and cultural aspects of street architecture.

Conclusion
Professional While the formal professional aspects are important, the room for acceptable and inevitable informal elements has to be allowed in order to ensure relevance to the architecture of the street and the city at large.