Khat: Is It More Like Coffee or Cocaine? Criminalizing a Commodity, Targeting a Community
Ezekiel Gebissa
Kettering University, Flint, USA.
DOI: 10.4236/sm.2012.22027   PDF    HTML     7,094 Downloads   15,718 Views   Citations

Abstract

This article looks at the expansion of khat chewing from the Horn of Africa to Western countries. It assesses the reaction of various sections of US society toward a practice they perceived as a dangerous new “drug” and a possible source of funding for terrorist groups by documenting the effect on Oromo immigrants of a nationwide crackdown by law enforcement. For the new immigrants, chewing khat provides a setting that connects them to the homeland and eases the vicissitudes of integration into the host culture, but the practice is illegal. It also shows how the media and political interest groups have shaped public perception of chewing khat in a negative light and precipitated the promulgation of hasty policies that have made Oromo immigrants targets of law enforcement. The article urges users to exercise discretion in a political environment that is not ready to restore fairness and rationality to policymaking.

Share and Cite:

Gebissa, E. (2012). Khat: Is It More Like Coffee or Cocaine? Criminalizing a Commodity, Targeting a Community. Sociology Mind, 2, 204-212. doi: 10.4236/sm.2012.22027.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Adeoya-Osiguwa, S. A., & Frazer, L. (2004). Cathine and norephedrine, both phenylpropanolamines, accelerate capacitation and then inhibit spontaneous acrosome loss. Human Reproduction, 20, 198-207. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh566
[2] Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). (2005). Khat (Qat): Assessment of risk to the individual and communities in the UK. London: Home Office.
[3] Ahmed, H. (2010). Tradition and innovation in the ritual of khat consumption in Wallo, Northern Ethiopia. In E. Gebissa (Ed.), In taking the place of food: Khat in Ethiopia (pp. 13-28). Lawrenceville, NJ: The Red Sea Press.
[4] Alem, A., & Shibre, T. (1997). Khat induced psychosis and its medico- legal implication: A case report. Ethiopian Medical Journal, 35, 137- 141.
[5] Al-Hebshi, N. N., & N. Skaug. (2005). Effect of khat chewing on 14 selected periodontal bacteria in sub- and sup-ragingival plaque of a young male population. Oral Microbiology and Immunology, 20, 141-146. doi:10.1111/j.1399-302X.2004.00195.x
[6] Al-Mamary, M., Al-Habori, A. M., Al-Aghbari, M., & Baker. M. (2002). Investigation into the toxicological effects of Catha edulis leaves:A short term study in animals. Phytotherapy Research, 16, 127-132. doi:10.1002/ptr.835
[7] Al-Motarreb, A. K. B., & K. Briadley. (2002). Khat: Pharmacological and medical aspects and its social use in Yemen. Pyschotherapy Research, 16, 403-413.
[8] Anderson, D., & Carrier, N. (2006). Flowers of paradise, or polluting the nation: Contested narrative of Khat consumption. In Conusming cultures, global perspectives: Historical trajectories, transnational exchanges (pp. 145-166). Oxford & New York: Berg.
[9] Argawv Ashcroft. (2005). Argawv Ashcroft No. 03-2436 (United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circut, 31 January 2005).
[10] Armstrong, E. G. (2008). Crime, chemicals, and culture: On the complexity of Khat. Journal of Drug Issues, 38, 631-648. doi:10.1177/002204260803800212
[11] Associated Press. (2007). Woman indicted on drug charges. Baltimore, AP: Assoiciated Press.
[12] Beckerleg, S. (2008). Use, users and unresolved issues—Khat special edition introduction. Substance Use and Misuse, 42, 749-760. doi:10.1080/10826080701739057
[13] Bentur, Y., Bloom-Krasik, A., & Raikhlin-Eisenkraft, B. (2008). Illicit cathinone (“Hagigat”) poisoning. Clinical Toxicology, 46, 206-210. doi:10.1080/15563650701517574
[14] Blount, J. (1996). Sort of legal. Sort of not. Somali wonder drug. Makes you hot. Saturday Night, March 1996. URL. http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/9603115808/.
[15] Bowdern, M. (1999). Black hawk down: A story of modern war. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press.
[16] Bulcha, M. (2002). The making of the oromo diaspora: A Historical sociology of forced migration. Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers.
[17] Carrier, N. (2007b). A strange drug in a strange land. In A. Pieroni, & I. Vanderbroek (Eds.), Traveling cultures and plants: The ethnology and ethnopharmacy of human migrations (pp. 186-203). New York & Oxford: Berghahn Books.
[18] Carrier, N. (2007a). Kenyan khat: The social life of a stimulant. Leiden: Brill Academic Publisher. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004156593.i-288
[19] Crenshaw, J. M., & T. Burk. (2004). Khat: A potential concern for law enforcement. FBI Law Enforcement Bullentin, 10-13.
[20] Cullen, S. (2007). Man gets jail time for dealing in khat. Wisconsin State Journal, 15 March 2007.
[21] Drug Enforcement Aminstration (DEA). (2003). Intelligence bulletin: Khat (Catha edulus). Johnstown, PA: US Department of Justice.
[22] Daugherty, S. (2010). Khat smugglers deported: 2 Brits brought 95 pounds to BMI. The Capital, Annapolis Maryland, 3 March 2010.
[23] Dizikes, C. (2009). Khat—Is it more coffee or cocaine? The narcotic leaf is a time-honored tradition in Africa but illegal in the US, where demand is growing. Los Angles Times. 3 January 2009. URL (last checked 30 September 2009). http://articles.latimes.com/2009/jan/03/nation/na-khat3
[24] Downey, T. (2006). Yemen: An arabian oasis for the intrepid. The New York Times, 10 December 2006. URL. http://travel.nytimes.com/2006/12/10/travel/10adventure.html
[25] Drug Connection. (1989). Khat. Drug Connection.
[26] Dunsmoor, B. (2009). Man Convicted of having African drug in tea. Feature Report, Sioux City: Keloland TV. URL. http://www.keloland.com/NewsDetail6162.cfm?Id=91123
[27] Ebaugh, A. (2006). Trial opens for immigrants after khat seized. Sioux City Jounral, 25 January 2006. URL. http://m.siouxcityjournal.com/news/article_ee26254a-c119-5d69-a206-9fe12fc84cb8.html
[28] Ebaugh, A. (2006). Jury acquits immigrant in khat drug trade. Sioux City Journal, 26 January 2006. URL. http://ethiomedia.com/courier/khat_trader_acquitted.html
[29] Economist. (1992). Somalia: Death by Looting. The Economist, 18 July 1992.
[30] El-Shoura, S. M., Abdel Aziz, M., Ali, M. E., El-Said, M. M., Ali, K. Z., & Kemeir, M. A. (1995). Deleterious effects of khat addiction on semen parameters and sperm ultrastructure. HumanReproduction, 10, 2295-2300.
[31] Gardiner, S. (2006). That darned Khat: In search of New York City’s most illusive drug. The Village Voice, 14 November 2006.
[32] Gebissa, E. (2010). Keeping tradition and killing time: The use and misuse of khat in Ethiopia. In E. Gebissa (Ed.), Taking the place of food: Khat in Ethiopia (pp. 57-88). Lawrenceville NJ: The Red Sea Press.
[33] Gebissa, E. (2010). Khat in the Horn of Africa: Historical perspectives and current trends. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 132, 607-614. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.01.063
[34] Gebissa, E. (2004). Leaf of Allah: Khat and agricultural transformation in Harerge, Ethiopia. Oxford: James Currey, 1875-1991.
[35] Getahun, S. A. (2006). The history of Ethiopian immigrants and refugees in America, 1900-2000: Patterns of migration, settlement, survival and adjustment . New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC.
[36] Giradet, E. (1992). A forgotten face of war. US News & World Repor , May 1992, 28-41.
[37] Grayson, K. (2008). Chasing dragons: Security, identity, and illicit drugs in Canada. Toronto: University of Tronto Press.
[38] Hart, J. (1997). Khat happenss. City Pages, 18 June 1997. URL. http://www.citypages.com/1997-06-18/news/khat-happens/
[39] Hays, T. (2000). Khat comes to America, prompting crackdown. The Associated Press State & Local Wire, 23 April 2000.
[40] Helmer, J. (1975). Drgus and minority control. New York: Seabury Press.
[41] Hennepin County. (1989). The drug connection. Occasional Publica- tion.
[42] Hill, C. M., & A. Gibson. (1987). The oral and dental effects of qat chewing. Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine, 33, 368-372.
[43] Howard, L., & Cerio, G. (1992)."Khat scum. Newsweek, 28 December 1992, 4.
[44] Huus, K. (2007). Making a federal case out of an obscure leaf Courts to decide if khat is an illicit drug or more like a double espresso. 22 May 2007. URL. (last checked 31 July 2011). http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18096999/ns/us_news-crime_and_courts/t/making-federal-case-out-obscure-leaf/
[45] Islam, M. W., Tariq, M., Ageel, A. M., El-Feraly, F. S., Al-Meshal, I. A., & Ashraf, I. (1990). An evaluation of the male reproductive toxicity of cathinone. Toxicology, 60, 223-234. doi:10.1016/0300-483X(90)90145-7
[46] Jorgensen, E., & Kaimenyi, J. T. (1990). The status of periodontal health and oral hygiene of Miraa (Catha edulis) chewers. East African Medical Journal, 67, 585-590.
[47] Kalix, P., & Braenden, O. (1985). Pharmacological aspects of the chew- ing of khat leaves. Pharmacological Review, 37, 149-164.
[48] Kennedy, J. (1987). The flower of paradise: Institutionalised use of the drug khat in North Yemen. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Press.
[49] Kumsa, M. K. (2005). Betweem home & exile: Dynamics of negotiating belonging among young Oromos living in Toronto. In K. P. Pupalampu, & W. Tettey (Eds.), The African diaspora in Canada: Negotiating identity and belonging (pp. 175-204). Calgary: University of Calgary Press.
[50] Kushner, H., & Bart D. (2004). Holy war on the home front: The secret Islamic terror network in the United States. New York: Sentinel.
[51] Kwiatkowski, J. (1993). Police note increase of khat, a new drug on streets but old custom in some homes recent seizure suggests imports increasing. Buffalo News, 2 May 1993. URL. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-22508019.html
[52] Lancaster, J. (1997). Chewing the Khat: A LUMPY DUd. Washington Post, 12 May1997, B01.
[53] Litman, A., I. Levav, & H. & Maoz, B. Saltz-Rennert. (1986). The use of khat. An epidemiological study in two Yemenite villages in Israel. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 10, 389-396. doi:10.1007/BF00049272
[54] Mains, D. (2010). Chewing and dreaming: Youth, imagination, and the consumption of khat in Jimma, Southwestern Ethiopia" In E. Gebissa (Ed.), Taking the place of food: Khat in Ethiopia (pp. 29-56). Lawrenceville, NJ: The Red Sea Press.
[55] Manghi, R. A. et al. (2009). Khat use: Lifestyle or addiction? Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 41, 1-10. doi:10.1080/02791072.2009.10400669
[56] McCraw, S. (2003). Testimony before the united states senate committee on the judiciary. Washington DC: US Senate Committee on the Judiciary. URL. http://judiciary.senate.gov/
[57] Mitchell, C. (2001). Brooklyn Yemenis indignant over police raids to seize leaves of the stimulant khat. Student Work, New York: The Journalism School, Columbia University. http://web.jrn.columbia.edu/studentwork/humanrights/khat-mitchell.asp.
[58] Montag, M. (2010). Cultures collide in Siouxland over legality of khat plant. Sioux City Journal, 1 February 2010. URL. http://m.siouxcityjournal.com/news/local/article_b6899dbc-a0a7-5f22-8edd-bb4a9130678a.html
[59] Musto, D. F. (1999). The American disease: Origins of narcotic control (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
[60] Nasir W., Klein, A., Bhui, K., Leavey, G., Craig, T., & Stansfeld, S. A. (2006). Khat use and mental illness: A critical review. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 09-318.
[61] NY1. (2006). Feds bust major African drug ring with NYC ties. 26 July 2006. URL (last checked 1 August 2011). http://www.ny1.com/content/top_stories/61315/feds-bust-major-african-drug-ring-with-nyc-ties
[62] Odenwald, M. (2007). Chronic khat use and psychotic disorders: A review of the literature and future prospects. Sucht, 53, 9-22. doi:10.1024/2007.01.03
[63] Renteln, A. D. (2004). The cultural defense. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[64] Siek, S. V. (2002). Use of drug up in US cities. New York: Associated Press.
[65] Sioux City. (2008). African drug seized in Sioux Falls, two charged. URL (last checked 14 August 2008). http://m.siouxcityjournal.com/news/article_1311b7cf-0997-5e79-bf4f-2d8de9c459dd.html
[66] Stancliff, D. (2009). Got khat? Paranoia leads to latest state ban on a plant. Eureka Standard-Times, 25 January 2009. URL. http://www.times-standard.com/othervoices/ci_11550184
[67] Stevenson, J. (1992). Krazy khat: Somalia’s deadly drug war. The New Republic, 23 November 1992, 1-19.
[68] Stevenson, M., Fitzgerald, J., & Banwell, C. (1996). Chewing as a so- cial act: Cultural displacement and khat consumption in the East Af- rican communities of Melbourne. Drug and Alcohol Review, 15, 73- 82. doi:10.1080/09595239600185691
[69] Tafla, B. (1982). Addictives in North East Africa: A brief survey of an aspect of nineteenth century cultural history. Afrika und Ubersee, 64, 282-309.
[70] Ukers, W. H. (1922). All about coffee. New York: The Tea and Coffee Trade Co.
[71] United States Govenment. (1988). Federal register (Vol. 53). Washington DC, 17 May 1988.
[72] United States Government. (1993). Federal Register (Vol. 58). Washington DC, 14 January 1993.
[73] US Second Court of Appeals. (2008). United States v. Hassan. 05-6949-cr. (United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circut, 19 September 2008).
[74] US Sixth Court of Appeals. (2005). United States v. Caseer No. 02- 2268 (United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circut, 28 February 2005).
[75] US News & World Report. (1992). Strangers in strange land—US news & world report. 21 December 1992, 60-61.
[76] Urquhart, C. (2004). Drugs and dance as Israelis blot out intifada: Nightlife in Tel Aviv on a par with the best in London and New York. The Guardian, 4 September 2004. URL. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/sep/04/israel
[77] Varisco, D. M. (1986).On the meaning of chewing: The significance of Qat (Catha edulis) in the Yemen Arab Republic. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 18, 1-13. doi:10.1017/S002074380003018X
[78] Wallace, B. (1992). The cry of a dying people. Maclean’s, 7 September 1992, 2-4.
[79] Warfa N., Bhui K., & Craig T. (2007). Post-migration geographical mobility, mental health and health service utilization among Somali refugees in the UK: A qualitative survey. Health Place, 12, 503-515. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2005.08.016
[80] Weinberg, B. (2006). Next for Somalia: Khat wars? 22 November 2006. URL (last checked 0 August 2011). http://www.ww4report.com/node/2817
[81] Weir, S. (1985). Qat in Yemen: Consumption and social change. London: British Museum Press.
[82] Williams, S. (2006). Somalis try to eradicate “bad habit” from Africa Tradition of chewing leaf has local community concerned; tougher law may emerge. The Columbus Dispatch, 27 November 2006. URL. http://www.dispatch.com/live/contentbe/dispatch/2006/11/27/20061127-A1-01.html
[83] World Health Organization. (2006). Assessment of khat (catha edulis frosk). Geneva: World Health Organization. URL. http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/quality_safety/4.4KhatCritReviesw.pdf

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.