Environmental Impacts of Rice Cultivation

Abstract

This paper describes the major environmental aspects related to the cultivation of rice. Rice is one of the most important agricultural products and it is cultivated in almost all countries in the world. Its production requires usually large flooded areas. Under these conditions, many greenhouse gases are generated, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and its derivatives. Cultivation of rice is responsible by the release of relevant amounts of these gases and contributes decisively to global warming. In this sense, the major points described here are general environmental aspects, the mechanisms of production of greenhouse gases, bioremediation, mitigation using other techniques and possible improvements of the cultivation by fertilizers and chemicals.

Share and Cite:

de Miranda, M. , Fonseca, M. , Lima, A. , de Moraes, T. and Aparecido Rodrigues, F. (2015) Environmental Impacts of Rice Cultivation. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 6, 2009-2018. doi: 10.4236/ajps.2015.612201.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Heinke, J., Ostberg, S., Schaphoff, S., Frieler, K., Müller, C., Gerten, D., Meinshausen, M. and Lucht, M. (2013) A New Climate Dataset for Systematic Assessments of Climate Change Impacts as a Function of Global Warming. Geoscientific Model Development, 6, 1689-1703.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1689-2013
[2] Rodrigues, F.A. and Joekes, I. (2011) Cement and Industry: Sustainability, Challenges and Perspectives. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 9, 151-166.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10311-010-0302-2
[3] Mogensen, L., Kristensen, T., Nielsen, N.I., Spleth, P., Henriksson, M., Swensson, C., Hessle, A. and Vestergaard, M. (2015) Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Beef Production Systems in Denmark and Sweden. Livestock Science, 174, 126-143.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2015.01.021
[4] Mosleh, M.K., Hassan, Q.K. and Chowdhury, E.H. (2015) Application of Remote Sensors in Mapping Rice Area and Forecasting Its Production: A Review. Sensors, 15, 769-791.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s150100769
[5] Sander, B.O., Samson, M. and Buresh, R.J. (2014) Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Flooded Rice Fields as Affected by Water and Straw Management between Rice Crops. Geoderma, 235-236, 355-362.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.07.020
[6] Zhang, B. and Chen, G.Q. (2014) China’s CH4 and CO2 Emissions: Bottom-Up Estimation and Comparative Analysis. Ecological Indicators, 47, 112-122.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.01.022
[7] Liu, G., Yu, H., Ma, J., Xu, H., Wu, Q., Yang, J. and Zhuang, Y. (2015) Effects of Straw Incorporation along with Microbial Inoculant on Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Rice Fields. Science of the Total Environment, 518-519, 209-216.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.028
[8] Pramanik, P., Haque, M. and Kim, P.J. (2013) Effect of Nodule Formation in Roots of Hairy Vetch (Viciavillosa) on Mthane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions during Succeeding Rice Cultivation. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 178, 51-56.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.06.021
[9] Suna, H., Zhang, H., Powlsond, D., Mina, J. and Shi, W. (2015) Rice Production, Nitrous Oxide Emission and Ammonia Volatilization as Impacted by the Nitrification Inhibitor 2-Chloro-6-(trichloromethyl)-pyridine. Field Crops Research, 173, 1-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2014.12.012
[10] Suna, W. and Huang, Y. (2012) Synthetic Fertilizer Management for China’s Cereal Crops Has Reduced N2O Emissions Since the Early 2000s. Environmental Pollution, 160, 24-27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.09.006
[11] IPCC (2007) Agriculture. In: Metz, B., Davidson, O.R. and Bosch, P.R., Eds., Climate Change 2007: Mitigation, Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 499-532.
[12] Zschornack, T., Bayer, C., Zanatta, J.A., Vieira, F.C.B. and Anghinoni, I. (2011) Mitigation of Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Flood-Irrigated Rice by No Incorporation of Winter Crop Residues into the Soil. Revista Brasileira de Ciências do Solo, 35, 623-634.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832011000200031
[13] Smith, J.B., Suarez, A. and Yamin, F. (2007) Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change. In: Parry, M.L., Canzini, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., Van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E., Eds., Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
[14] Lima, M.A. (2000) Emissão de gases de efeito estufa provenientes de sistemas agrícolas no Brasil. Biotecnologia Ciência e Desenvolvimento, 17, 38-43.
[15] Kaewpradit, W., Toomsan, B., Vityakon, P., Limpinuntana, V., Saenjan, P., Jogloy, S. and Cadisch, G. (2008) Regulating Mineral N Release and Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Mixing Groundnut Residues and Rice Straw under Field Conditions. European Journal of Soil Science, 59, 640-652.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2008.01021.x
[16] Ahmad, S., Li, C., Dai, G., Zhan, M., Wang, J., Pan, S. and Cao, C. (2009) Greenhouse Gas Emission from Direct Seeding Paddy Field under Different Rice Tillage Systems in Central China. Soil and Tillage Research, 106, 54-61.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2009.09.005
[17] Silva, J.T., de Sousa, R.O., Scivittaro, W.B., Buss, G.L. and da Silva, J.B. (2015) Emissões de metano no período de cultivo do arroz irrigado sob diferentes sistemas de preparo do solo. Embrapa Clima Temperado-Artigo em anais de congresso (ALICE). REUNIÃO SUL-BRASILEIRA DE CIêNCIA DO SOLO, 10, 2014, Pelotas. Fatos e mitos em ciência do solo. Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, Pelotas, UFPEL, 2014.
[18] Naser, H.M., Nagata, O., Tamura, S. and Hatano, R. (2007) Methane Emissions from Five Paddy Fields with Different Amounts of Rice Straw Application in Central Hokkaido, Japan. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 53, 95-101.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-0765.2007.00105.x
[19] Dalal, R.C., Allen, D.E., Livesley, S.J. and Richards, G. (2008) Magnitude and Biophysical Regulators of Methane Emission and Consumption in the Australian Agricultural, Forest, and Submerged Landscapes: A Review. Plant and Soil, 309, 43-76.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9446-7
[20] Agostinetto, D., Fleck, N.G., Rizzardi, M.A., Merotto Jr., A. and Vidal, R.A. (2001) Arroz vermelho: Ecofisiologia e estratégias de controle. Ciência Rural, 31, 341-349.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782001000200026
[21] Wassmann, R., Neue, H.U., Alberto, M.C.R., Lantin, R.S., Bueno, C., Llenaresas, D. and Rennenberg, H. (1996) Fluxes and Pools of Methane in Wetland Rice Soils with Varying Organic Inputs. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 42, 163-173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00394048
[22] Kimura, M. and Minami, A. (1995) Dynamics of Methane in Rice Fields: Emissions to the Atmosphere in Japan and Thailand. In: Peng, S., Ingram, K.T., Neue, H.-U. and Ziska, L.H., Eds., Climate Change and Rice, International Rice Research Institute, Thomson Press, New Delhi, 30-45.
[23] Figueiredo, N., Fareleira, P., Menino, R., Marques, P., Vargues, A. and Carranca, C. (2011) A produção de arroz em Portugal. Livro das comemoraçães dos, 75, 28-31.
[24] Xing, G.X. (1998) N2O Emission from Cropland in China. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 52, 249-254.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009776008840
[25] Liang, W., Shi, Y., Zhang, H., Yue, J. and Huang, G.H. (2007) Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Northeast China Rice Fields in Fallow Season. Pedosphere, 17, 630-638.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(07)60075-7
[26] Gomes, J. (2006) Emissão de gases do efeito estufa e mitigação do potencial de aquecimento global por sistemas conservacionistas de manejo do solo. Thesis, Federal do Rio Grande do Sul University, Porto Alegre.
[27] Dobbie, K.E. and Smith, K.A. (2003) Impact of Different Forms of N Fertilizer on N2O Emissions from Intensive Grassland. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 67, 37-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025119512447
[28] Cai, Z.C., Xing, G.X., Yan, X.Y., Xu, H., Tsuruta, H., Yagi, K. and Minami, K. (1997) Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Rice Paddy Fields as Affected by Nitrogen Fertilisers and Water Management. Plant and Soil, 196, 7-14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004263405020
[29] Rochette, P., Tremblay, N., Fallon, E., Angers, D.A., Chantigny, M.H., MacDonald, J.D. and Parent, L.é. (2010) N2O Emissions from an Irrigated and Non-Irrigated Organic Soil in Eastern Canada as Influenced by N Fertilizer Addition. European Journal of Soil Science, 61, 186-196.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2009.01222.x
[30] Xu, S.P., Jaffé, P.R. and Mauzerall, D.L. (2007) A Process-Based Model for Methane Emission from Flooded Rice Paddy Systems. Ecological Modelling, 205, 475-491.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.03.014
[31] Mudge, F. and Adger, W.N. (1995) Methane Fluxes from Artificial Wetlands: A Global Appraisal. Environmental Management, 19, 39-55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02472002
[32] Silva, L.S., Griebeler, G., Moterle, D.F., Bayer, C., Zschormark, T. and Pocojeski, E. (2011) Dinamica da emissão de metano em solos sob cultivo de arroz irrigado no sul do Brasil. Revista Brasileira de Ciências do Solo, 35, 473-481.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832011000200016
[33] Gauci, V., Matthews, E., Dise, N., Walter, B., Koch, D., Granberg, G. and Vile, M. (2004) Sulfur Pollution Suppression of the Wetland Methane Source in the 20th and 21st Centuries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 12583-12587.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0404412101
[34] Liu, S.Y., Zhang, Y.J., Lin, F., Zhang, L. and Zou, J.W. (2013) Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Direct-Seeded and Seedling-Transplanted Rice Paddies in Southeast China. Plant and Soil, 374, 285-297.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-013-1878-7
[35] Smith, P., Martino, D., Cai, Z.C., Gwary, D., Janzen, H., Kumar, P., McCarl, B., Ogle, S., O’Mara, F., Rice, C., Scholes, B., Sirotenko, O., Howden, M., McAllister, T., Pan, G.X., Romanenkov, V., Scheider, U., Towprayoon, S., Wattenbach, M. and Smith, J. (2008) Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in Agriculture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363, 789-813.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2184
[36] Epule, E.T., Peng, C. and Mafany, N.M. (2011) Methane Emissions from Paddy Rice Fields: Strategies towards Achieving a Win-Win Sustainability Scenario between Rice Production and Methane Emission Reduction. Journal of Sustainable Development, 4, 188-196.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v4n6p188
[37] Liou, R.M., Huang, S.N. and Lin, C.W. (2003) Methane Emission from Fields with Differences in Nitrogen Fertilizers and Rice Varieties in Taiwan Paddy Soils. Chemosphere, 50, 237-246.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(02)00158-3
[38] Lu, Y.H., Wassman, R., Neue, H. and Huang, C.Y. (2000) Dynamics of Dissolved Organic Carbon and Methane Emissions in a Flooded Rice Soil. Soil Science Society of American Journal, 64, 2011-2017.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2000.6462011x
[39] Dunfield, P. and Knowles, R. (1995) Kinetics of Inhibition of Methane Oxidation by Nitrate, Nitrite, and Ammonium in a Humisol. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 61, 3129-3135.
[40] Gulledge, J. and Schimel, J.P. (1998) Low-Concentration Kinetics of Atmospheric CH4 Oxidation in Soil and Mechanism of 〖"NH" 〗_"4" ^"+" Inhibition. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64, 4291-4298.
[41] Bodelier, P.L., Roslev, P., Henckel, T. and Frenzel, P. (2000) Stimulation by Ammonium-Based Fertilizers of Methane Oxidation in Soil around Rice Roots. Nature, 403, 421-424.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35000193
[42] Bodelier, P.L. and Laanbroek, H.J. (2004) Nitrogen as a Regulatory Factor of Methane Oxidation in Soils and Sediments. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 47, 265-277.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168-6496(03)00304-0
[43] Dong, H.B., Yao, Z.S., Zheng, X.H., Mei, B.L., Xie, B.H., Wang, R., Deng, J., Cui, F. and Zhu, J.G. (2011) Effect of Ammonium-Based, Non-Sulfate Fertilizers on CH4 Emissions from a Paddy Field with a Typical Chinese Water Management Regime. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 1095-1101.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.11.039
[44] Ma, J., Li, X.L., Xu, H., Han, Y., Cai, Z.C. and Yagi, K. (2007) Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer and Wheat Straw Application on CH4 and N2O Emissions from a Paddy Rice Field. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 45, 359-367.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/SR07039
[45] Xie, B.H., Zheng, X.H., Zhou, Z.X., Zhu, B., Chen, X., Shi, Y., Wang, Y.Y., Zhao, Z.C., Liu, C.Y., Yao, Z.S. and Zhu, J.G. (2010) Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer on CH4 Emission from Rice Fields: Multi-Site Field Observations. Plant and Soil, 326, 393-401.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0020-3
[46] Linquist, B.A., Adviento-Borbe, M.A., Pittelkow, C.M., van Kessel, C. and van Groenigen, K.J. (2012) Fertilizer Management Practices and greenhouse gas emissions from rice systems: A quantitative review and analysis. Field Crops Research, 135, 10-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.06.007
[47] Cheng, W., Yagi, K., Akiyama, H., Nishimura, S., Sudo, S., Fumoto, T., Hasegawa, T., Hartley, A.E. and Megonigal, J.P. (2007) An Empirical Model of Soil Chemical Properties That Regulate Methane Production in Japanese Rice Paddy Soils. Journal of Environmental Quality, 36, 1920-1925.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/jeq2007.0201
[48] Jäckel, U. and Schnell, S. (2000) Suppression of Methane Emission from Rice Paddies by Ferric Iron Fertilization. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 32, 1811-1814.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(00)00094-8
[49] Jäckel, U., Russo, S. and Schnell, S. (2005) Enhanced Iron Reduction by Iron Supplement: A Strategy to Reduce Methane Emission from Paddies. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 37, 2150-2154.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.03.003
[50] Liu, S.W., Zhang, L., Liu, Q.H. and Zou, J.W. (2012) Fe(III) Fertilization Mitigating Net Global Warming Potential and Greenhouse Gas Intensity in Paddy Rice-Wheat Rotation Systems in China. Environmental Pollution, 164, 73-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.01.029
[51] Wang, W., Lai, D.Y.F., Li, S., Kim, P.J., Zeng, C., Li, P. and Liang, Y. (2014) Steel Slag Amendment Reduces Methane Emission and Increases Rice Productivity in Subtropical Paddy Fields in China. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 22, 683-691.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-014-9364-4
[52] Denier van der Gon, H.A.C. and Neue, H.U. (1994) Impact of Gypsum Application on the Methane Emission from a Wetland Rice Field. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 8, 127-134.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/94GB00386
[53] Lindau, C.W., Wickersham, P., DeLaune, R.D., Collins, J.W., Bollick, P.K., Scott, L.M. and Lambremont, E.N. (1998) Methane and Nitrous Oxide Evolution and 15N and 226Ra Uptake as Affected by Application of Gypsum and Phosphogypsum to Louisiana Rice. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 68, 165-173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(97)00154-0
[54] Ruser, R. and Schulz, R. (2015) The Effect of Nitrification Inhibitors on the Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Release from Agricultural Soils—A Review. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 178, 171-188.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201400251
[55] Datta, A. and Adhya, T. (2014) Effects of Organic Nitrification Inhibitors on Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emission from Tropical Rice Paddy. Atmospheric Environment, 92, 533-545.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.04.009
[56] Li, X.L., Zhang, G.B., Xu, H., Cai, Z.C. and Yagi, K. (2009) Effect of Timing of Joint Application of Hydroquinone and Dicyandiamide on Nitrous Oxide Emission from Irrigated Lowland Rice Paddy Field. Chemosphere, 75, 1417-1422.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.02.006
[57] Sun, H.J., Zhang, H.L., Powlson, D., Min, J. and Shi, W.M. (2015) Rice Production, Nitrous Oxide Emission and Ammonia Volatilization as Impacted by the Nitrification Inhibitor 2-Chloro-6-(Trichloromethyl)-Pyridine. Field Crops Research, 173, 1-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2014.12.012
[58] Bhatia, A., Sasmal, S., Jain, N., Pathak, H., Kumar, R. and Singh, A. (2010) Mitigating Nitrous Oxide Emission from Soil under Conventional and No-Tillage in Wheat Using Nitrification Inhibitors. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 136, 247-253.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2010.01.004
[59] Dong, H.B., Yao, Z.S., Zheng, X., Mei, B.L. and Xie, B.H. (2011) Effect of Ammonium-Based, Non-Sulfate Fertilizers on CH4 Emissions from a Paddy Field with a Typical Chinese Water Management Regime. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 1095-1101.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.11.039
[60] Riya, S., Zhou, S., Kobara, Y., Sagehashi, M., Terada, A. and Hosomi, M. (2015) Influence of Nitrogen Loading and Plant Nitrogen Assimilation on Nitrogen Leaching and N2O Emission in Forage Rice Paddy Fields Fertilized with Liquid Cattle Waste. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 5762-5771.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3811-x
[61] Yao, Z.S., Zheng, X.H., Dong, H.B., Wang, R., Mei, B.L. and Zhu, J.G. (2012) A 3-Year Record of N2O and CH4 Emissions from a Sandy Loam Paddy during Rice Seasons as Affected by Different Nitrogen Application Rates. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 152, 1-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2012.02.004
[62] Linquist, B.A., Adviento-Borbe, M.A., Pittelkow, C.M., Kessel, C.V. and Groenigen, K.J. (2012) Fertilizer Management Practices and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Rice Systems: A Quantitative Review and Analysis. Field Crops Research, 135, 10-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.06.007
[63] Sasada, Y., Win, K.T., Nonaka, R., Win, A.T., Toyota, K., Motobayashi, T., et al. (2011) Methane and N2O Emissions, Nitrate Concentrations of Drainage Water, and Zinc and Copper Uptake by Rice Fertilized with Anaerobically Digested Cattle or Pig Slurry. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 47, 949-956.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00374-011-0601-1
[64] Zhang, A.F., Cui, L.Q., Pan, G.X., Li, L.Q., Hussain, Q., Zhang, X., et al. (2010) Effect of Biochar Amendment on Yield and Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from a Rice Paddy from Tai Lake Plain, China. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 139, 469-475.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2010.09.003

Copyright © 2023 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.