Learned Helplessness and Socialization: A Reflective Analysis

Atasi Mohanty¹, Rabindra Kumar Pradhan², Lalatendu Kesari Jena²

¹Centre for Educational Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India.
²Department of Humanities and Social Science, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India.

DOI: 10.4236/psych.2015.67087                

Abstract

The growth of an individual is an area of great scientific concern. The malleability of a human being in its physiological and psychological structure makes room for external influences. A multitude of influence interacts with a professional’s psychological structure and molds it in various ways. It has been understood that the pattern of socialization is a potent source of influence for growth of professional. Hence, it is important to recognize that the growth not only means the execution of certain responses, but also inhibitions of certain other responses. Therefore, we presume from such a stand point that an understanding of negative forces is as important as that of positive forces and the explanation of such negative factors is essential for harnessing the growth of a professional. This assumption is primarily drawn because as our skills and abilities surface under some stimulating condition, the competence at the same time may likely to be suppressed by some negative factors. Through this conceptual paper, we would like to bring the learned helplessness in which such negative influences of socialization are conceptualized and predicted.

Keywords

Learned Helplessness, Depression, Disease Susceptibility, Coping with Undesirable Life Events, Work Inefficiency, Socialization

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Abramson, L. Y., & Sackeim, H. A. (1977). A Paradox in Depression: Uncontrollability and Self-Blame. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 838-851. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.84.5.838
[2]	Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, I. (1978). Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49
[3]	Bandura, A. (1981). Self-Referent Thought: A Developmental Analysis of Self-Efficacy. In J. H. Flavell, & L. Ross (Eds.), Social Cognitive Development: Frontiers and Possible Futures (pp. 200-239). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[4]	Bandura, A. (1982). Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122
[5]	Bauer, H., Pripfl, J., Lamm, C., Prainsack, C., & Taylor, N. (2003). Functional Neuro Anatomy of Learned Helplessness. NeuroImage, 20, 927-939. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00363-X
[6]	Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, Experimental, and Theoretical Aspects. New York: Hoeber.
[7]	Beevers, C. G., Keitner, G. I., Ryan, C. E., & Miller, I. W. (2003). Cognitive Predictors of Symptom Return Following Depression Treatment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 488-496. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.3.488
[8]	Blaney, P. H. (1977). Contemporary Theories of Depression: Critique and Comparison. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 203-223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.86.3.203
[9]	Bodner, E., & Mikulincer, M. (1998). Learned Helplessness and the Occurence of Depressive-Like and Paranoid-Like Responses: The Role of Attentional Focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1010-1023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.1010
[10]	Brehm, J. W. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York: Academic Press.
[11]	Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social Origins of Depression: A Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women. London: Tavistock Publications; New York: Free Press.
[12]	Cantwell, D. P., & Carlson, G. (1979). Problems and Prospects in the Study of Childhood Depression. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 167, 522-529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-197909000-00002
[13]	Cemalcilar, Z., Canbeyli, R., & Sunar, D. (2003). Learned Helplessness, Therapy, and Personality Traits: An Experimental Study. Journal of Social Psychology, 143, 65-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224540309598431
[14]	Das, V. (1989). Voices of Children. Daedalus, 118, 263-294.
[15]	Depue, R. A., & Monroe, S. M. (1978). Learned Helplessness in the Perspective of the Depressive Disorders: Conceptual and Definitional Issues. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 3-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.3
[16]	Dweck, C. S., & Licht, B. G. (1980). Learned Helplessness and Intellectual Achievement. In J. Garber, & M. E. P. Seligman (Eds.), Human Helplessness: Theory and Application. New York: Academic Press.
[17]	Dweck, C. S., & Wortman, C. B. (1982). Learned Helplessness, Anxiety, and Achievement Motivation: Neglected Parallels in Cognitive, Affective, and Coping Responses. In H. W. Krohne, & L. Laux (Eds.), Achievement, Stress, and Anxiety (pp. 93-125). Washington DC: Hemisphere.
[18]	Field, N. P., & Friedrichs, M. (2004). Continuing Bonds in Coping with the Death of a Husband. Death Studies, 28, 597-620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07481180490476425
[19]	Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Positive Affect and the Other Side of Coping. American Psychologist, 55, 647-654. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.6.647
[20]	Fosco, F., & Geer, J. H. (1971). Effects of Gaining Control over Aversive Stimuli after Differing Amounts of No Control. Psychological Reports, 29, 1153-1154. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1971.29.3f.1153
[21]	Frankenhauser, M. (1971). Behavior and Circulating Catecholamines. Brain Research, 31, 241-262. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(71)90180-6
[22]	Funkenstein, D. H., King, S. H., & Drollette, M. E. (1957). Mastery of Stress. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674332911
[23]	Gaffrey, M. S., Belden, A. C., & Luby, J. L. (2011). The 2-Week Duration Criterion and Severity and Course of Early Child- hood Depression: Implications for Nosology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 133, 537-545. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.04.056
[24]	Gatchel, R., & Proctor, J. (1976). Physiological Correlates of Learned Helplessness in Man. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 27-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.85.1.27
[25]	Greene, W. A., Goldstein, S., & Moss, A. J. (1972). Psychosocial Aspects of Sudden Death: A Preliminary Report. Archives of Internal Medicine, 129, 725-731. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1972.00320050049005
[26]	Hatfield, J., & Job, R. F. S. (1998). Random Yoking: An Alternative to Feedback Procedures for Preventing Superstition in the Human Learned Helplessness Paradigm. Learning and Motivation, 29, 416-434. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/lmot.1998.1010
[27]	Hiroto, D. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Generality of Learned Helplessness in Man. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 311-327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076270
[28]	House, J. S. (1974). Occupational Stress and Coronary Heart Disease: A Review and Theoretical Integration. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 15, 12-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2136922
[29]	Jenkins, C. D. (1971). Psychologic and Social Precursors of Coronary Disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 284, 307-317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197102112840607
[30]	Kanungo, R. N., & Misra, S. (1985). Developing Work Motivation in India. Indian Management Journal, All Indian Management Association, 6-14.
[31]	Klinger, E. (1975). Consequences of Commitment to and Disengagement from Incentives. Psychological Review, 82, 1-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076171
[32]	Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and Void: Inner Experience and the Incentives in People’s Lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
[33]	Langer, E. J. (1983). The Psychology of Control. London: Sage Publications.
[34]	Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[35]	Lefkowitz, M. M., & Tesiny, E. P. (1980). Assessment of Childhood Depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 43-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.48.1.43
[36]	Lefkowitz, M. M., & Burton, N. (1978). Childhood Depression: A Critique of the Concept. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 716- 726. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.85.4.716
[37]	Lloyd, C. (1980). Life Events and Depressive Disorder Reviewed: Events as Precipitating Factors. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 541-548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1980.01780180055005
[38]	Maier, S. F., & Watkins, L. R. (2000). Learned Helplessness. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 505-508). London: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10519-217
[39]	Mason, J. W. (1972). Organization of Psychoendocrine Mechanisms: A Review and Reconsideration of Research. In N. Greenfield, & R. Sternbach (Eds.), Handbook of Psychophysiology (pp. 3-76). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
[40]	Miller, I. W., & Norman, W. H. (1986). Persistence of Depressive Cognitions within a Subgroup of Depressed Inpatients. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10, 211-224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01173726
[41]	Miller, W. R., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1976). Learned Helplessness, Depression, and the Perception of Reinforcement. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 14, 7-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(76)90039-5
[42]	Monroe, S. M., Slavich, G. M., & Georgiades, K. (2014). The Social Environment and Depression: The Importance of Life Stress. In I. H. Gotlib, & C. L. Hammen (Eds.), Handbook of Depression (3rd ed., pp. 296-314). New York: Guilford Press.
[43]	Nielson, N. R., Kristensen, T. S., Schnohr, P., & Gronbaek, M. (2008). Perceived Stress and Cause Specific Mortality among Men and Women: Results from a Prospective Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 168, 481-491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn157
[44]	Overmier, J. B. (2002). On Learned Helplessness. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 37, 4-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02688801
[45]	Palker-Corell, A., & Marcus, D. K. (2004). Partner Abuse, Learned Helplessness, and Trauma Symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 445-462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.4.445.40311
[46]	Paykel, E. S. (1985). The Clinical Interview for Depression. Development, Reliability and Validity. Journal of Affective Disorders, 9, 85-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-0327(85)90014-X
[47]	Peterson, C., Semmel, A., Von Baeyer, C., Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1982). The Attributional Style Questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 287-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01173577
[48]	Rodin, J. C. (1976). Density, Perceived Choice, and Response to Controllable and Uncontrollable Outcomes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 564-578. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(76)90035-4
[49]	Sahoo, F. M., & Tripathy, S. (1990). Learned Helplessness in Industrial Employees: A Study of Non-Contingency, Satisfaction and Motivational Deficits. Psychological studies, 35, 79-87.
[50]	Sahoo, F. M. (1991). Learned Helplessness in Organizations. Management and Labour Studies, 16, 1-10.
[51]	Sahoo, F. M., & Mohapatra, C. (1986). Helplessness Syndrome: Present Status and Future Directions. Indian Journal of Community Guidance, 3, 11-20.
[52]	Sahoo, F. M., & Sia, N. (1990). Role of Socio-Cultural Antecedents in the Development of Helplessness. Unpublished Report, Bhubaneshwar, India: Psychology Department, Utkal University.
[53]	Saxena, S., & Shah, H. (2008). Effect of Organizational Culture on Creating Learned Helplessness Attributions in R&D Professionals: A Canonical Correlation Analysis. Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers, 33, 25.
[54]	Schulz, R., & Hanusa, B. (1980). Applications of Experimental Social Psychology to Aging. Journal of Social Issues, 36, 30-47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1980.tb02020.x
[55]	Seligman, M. E. P. (1974). Depression and Learned Helplessness. In R. J. Friedman, & M. M. Katz (Eds.), The Psychology of Depression: Contemporary Theory and Research (pp. 83-113). Washington DC: Winston.
[56]	Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
[57]	Seligman, M. E. P., Abramson, L. Y., Semmel, A., & Von Baeyer, C. (1979). Depressive Attributional Style. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88, 242-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.88.3.242
[58]	Seligman, M. E. P., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to Escape Traumatic Shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74, 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0024514
[59]	Seligman, M. E. P. (1981). A Learned Helplessness Point of View. In L. Rehm (Ed.), Behavior Therapies for Depression. New York: Academic Press.
[60]	Seligman, M. E. P., & Schulman, P. (1986). Explanatory Style as a Predictor of Productivity and Quitting among Life Insurance Agents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 832-838. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.4.832
[61]	Shontz, E. C. (1975). The Psychological Aspects of Physical Illness and Disability. New York: Macmillan.
[62]	Sia, N. (1990). Role of Socio-Cultural Antecedents in the Development of Helplessness. The Indian Journal of Social Work, 52, 325-336.
[63]	Weiner, B. (2000). Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Theories of Motivation from an Attributional Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 12, 1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009017532121
[64]	Weiner, B., Frieze, I., Kukla, A., Reed, L., Rest, S., & Rosenbaum, R. M. (1971). Perceiving the Causes of Success and Failure. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
[65]	Weiss, J. M., Stone, E. A., & Hanell, N. (1970). Coping Behavior and Brain nor Epinephrine Levels in Rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 72, 153-160. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0029311
[66]	Whiting, J. W. M. (1981). Environmental Constraints on Infant Care Practices. In R. H. Munroe, R. L. Munroe, & B. B. Whiting (Eds.), Handbook of Cross-cultural Human Development (pp. 155-179). Garland Press: New York.
[67]	Wortman, C. B., & Dintzer, L. (1978). Is an Attributional Analysis of the Learned Helplessness Phenomenon Viable? A Critique of the Abramson-Seligman-Teasdale Reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 75-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.75
[68]	Wortman, C. B., & Brehm, J. W. (1975). Responses to Uncontrollable Outcomes: An Integration of Reactance Theory and the Learned Helplessness Model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 277- 336). New York: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60253-1