The Influence of L2 Transfer on L3 English Written Production in a Bilingual German/Italian Population: A Study of Syntactic Errors

Abstract

This study attempts to examine and identify instances of negative “interlanguage transfer” (Sharwood Smith & Kellerman, 1986), which is a phenomenon belonging to the broader field of crosslinguistic influence, in written L3 English production in a bilingual Italian/German population. Transfer from learners’ L2 has attracted increasing attention over recent years (De Angelis & Selinker, 2001; Jessner, 2006) and research has suggested various potential triggers for facilitative and negative L2 transfer, as well as producing mixed results regarding the individual aspects of language that may be susceptible to transfer from a learner’s L2. Quantitative data were collected from 46 subjects in the form of questionnaires enquiring about language backgrounds and attitudes, and written summaries. The Statistical Package for Social Science was used to analyse specific instances of written syntactic errors resulting from both L1 and L2 transfer and these were then examined in the light of the questionnaire responses in order to identify possible determining factors behind any L2 transfer for both linguistic groups. Results provided evidence of negative syntactic L2 transfer from German and Italian in English L3, yet the possible determining factors were sometimes unexpected and not necessarily identical for both groups. This study suggests that L2 transfer in multilingual settings is a very real possibility which may be of future interest in terms of multilingual language processing and have consequences for the L3 classroom.

Share and Cite:

Forsyth, H. (2014) The Influence of L2 Transfer on L3 English Written Production in a Bilingual German/Italian Population: A Study of Syntactic Errors. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 4, 429-456. doi: 10.4236/ojml.2014.43036.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Alcock, A. (1992). The Protection of Regional Cultural Minorities and the Process of European Integration: The Example of South Tyrol. International Relations, 11, 17-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004711789201100102
[2] Alcock, A. (2001). The South Tyrol Autonomy. A Short Introduction. (unpublished).
http://www.provinz.bz.it/lpa/autonomy/South-Tyrol%20Autonomy.pdf
[3] Aronin, L., & Hufeisen, B. (2009). The Exploration of Multilingualism: Development of Research on L3, Multilingualism and Multiple Language Acquisition. AILA Applied Linguistics Series 6. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/aals.6
[4] Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matter.
[5] Bardel, C., & Falk, Y. (2007). The Role of the Second Language in Third Language Acquisition: The Case of Germanic Syntax. Second Language Research, 23, 459-484.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267658307080557
[6] Bardel, C., & Falk, Y. (2011). Object Pronouns in German L3 Syntax: Evidence for the L2 Status Factor. Second Language Learning, 27, 59-82.
[7] Bassetti, B. (2007). Bilingualism and Thought: Grammatical Gender and Concepts of Objects in Italian-German Bilingual Children. International Journal of Bilingualism, 11, 251-273.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/13670069070110030101
[8] Benvenuto, O. (2010). South Tyrol in Figures. Bolzano: Autonomous Province of South Tyrol Provincial Statistics Institute- ASTAT.
[9] Bialystok, E. (1993). Metalinguistic Dimensions of Bilingual Language Proficiency. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language Processing in Bilingual Children (pp. 113-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[10] Bialystok, E., Craik, F., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control: Evidence from the Simon Task. Psychology and Aging, 19, 290-303.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290
[11] Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. Revised from 1914 Edition. New York: Holt.
[12] Bouvy, C. (2000). Towards the Construction of a Theory of Cross-Linguistic Transfer. In J. Cenoz, & U. Jessner (Eds.), English in Europe: The Acquisition of a Third Language (pp. 143-156). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[13] Cenoz, J. (2003). The Role of Typology in the Organization of the Multilingual Lexicon. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Multilingual Lexicon (pp. 103-166). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48367-7_8
[14] Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B., & Jessner, U. (2003). Why Investigate the Multilingual Lexicon? In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Multilingual Lexicon (pp. 1-10). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/b101932
[15] Chamot, A. (1973). Phonological Problems in Learning English as a Third Language. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 11, 243-250.
[16] Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
[17] Clyne, M. (1997). Some of the Things Trilinguals Do. The International Journal of Bilingualism, 1, 95-116.
[18] Clyne, M. (2003). Dynamics of Language Contact. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511606526
[19] Cohen, A. D. (1995). In Which Language Do/Should Multilinguals Think? Language, Culture and Curriculum, 8, 99-113.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07908319509525194
[20] Cook, V. (1992). Evidence for Multicompetence. Language Learning, 42, 557-591.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992.tb01044.x
[21] Cook, V. (2005). Multicompetence: Black Hole or Worm Hole?
[22] http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Papers/SLRF05.htm
[23] Corder, P. (1967). The Significance of Learner Errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5, 161-170.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/iral.1967.5.1-4.161
[24] Croft, W. (2003). Typology and Universals (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[25] Crystal, D. (1997). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (4th ed.). Malden, MA/Oxford: Blackwell.
[26] Cummins, J. (1976). The Influence of Bilingualism on Cognitive Growth: A Synthesis of Research Findings and Explanatory Hypotheses. Working Papers on Bilingualism No. 9, 1-43.
[27] Cummins, J. (1991). Language Learning and Bilingualism. Sophia Linguistica, 29, 1-194.
[28] De Angelis, G. (2007). Third or Additional Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[29] De Angelis, G., & Selinker, L. (2001). Interlanguage Transfer and Competing Linguistic Systems in the Multilingual Mind. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (pp. 42-58). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[30] De Bot, K. (1992). A Bilingual Production Model: Levelt’s ‘Speaking’ Model Adapted. Applied Linguistics, 13, 1-24.
[31] De Bot, K. (forthcoming). The Psycholinguistics of Multilingualism. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.
[32] Dechert, H. W. (1997). Metakognition und Zweitspracherwerb. In U. Rampillon, & G. Zimmermann (Eds.), Strategien und Techniken beim Erwerb fremder Sprachen (pp. 10-32). München: Hüber.
[33] Dewaele, J. M. (1998). Lexical Inventions: French Interlanguage as L2 versus L3. Applied Linguistics, 19, 471-490.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/19.4.471
[34] Dewaele, J. M. (2001). Activation or Inhibition? The Interaction of L1, L2 and L3 on the Language Mode Continuum. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (pp. 42-48). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[35] Dörnyei, Z. (2010). Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
[36] Ecke, P. (2001). Lexical Retrieval in a Third Language: Evidence from Errors and Tip-of-the-Tongue States. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (pp. 90-114). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[37] Eckman, F. R. (1977). Markedness and the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. Language Learning, 27, 315-330.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1977.tb00124.x
[38] Ellis, N. (1994). Psychological Perspectives on the Role of Conscious Processes in Vocabulary Acquisition. International Association of Applied Linguistics Review, 11, 37-56.
[39] Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[40] Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1986). Cognitive Dimensions of Language Transfer. In E. Kellerman, & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 49-65). New York: Pergamon Press.
[41] Flynn, S., Foley, C., & Vinnitskaya, I. (2004). The Cumulative-Enhancement Model of Language Acquisition: Comparing Adults’ and Children’s Patterns of Development in First, Second and Third Language Acquisition of Relative Clauses. International Journal of Multilingualism, 1, 3-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14790710408668175
[42] Fries, C. C. (1945). Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
[43] Green, D. (1986). Control, Activation and Resource: A Framework and a Model for the Control of Speech in Bilinguals. Brain and Language, 27, 210-223.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(86)90016-7
[44] Greenberg, J. (1974). Language Typology: A Historical and Analytic Overview. The Hague: Mouton.
[45] Grosjean, F. (1989). Neurolinguists, Beware! The Bilingual Is Not Two Monolinguals in One Person. Brain and Language, 36, 3-15.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(89)90048-5
[46] Grosjean, F. (2001). The Bilingual’s Language Modes. In J. Nicol (Ed.), One Mind, Two Languages: Bilingual Language Processing (pp. 1-25). Oxford: Blackwell.
[47] Hakansson, G., Pienemann, M., & Sayheli, S. (2002). Transfer and Typological Proximity in the Context of Second Language Processing. Second Language Research, 18, 250-273.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/0267658302sr206oa
[48] Hall, C., & Ecke, P. (2003). Parasitism as a Default Mechanism in L3 Vocabulary Learning. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Multilingual Lexicon (pp. 71-85). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
[49] Hammarberg, B (2001). Roles of L1 and L2 in L3 Production and Acquisition. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (pp. 21-41). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[50] Haugen, E. (1956). Bilingualism in the Americas. Alabama: American Dialect Society.
[51] Herdina, P., & Jessner, U. (2000). The Dynamics of Third Language Acquisition. In J. Cenoz, & U. Jessner (Eds.), English in Europe: The Acquisition of a Third Language (pp. 84-98). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[52] Hoffmann, C. (2000). The Spread of English and the Growth of Multilingualism with English in Europe. In J. Cenoz, & U. Jessner (Eds.), English in Europe: The Acquisition of a Third Language (pp. 1-21). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[53] Holmes, J. (2008). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (3rd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.
[54] Hufeisen, B. (1993). Fehleranalyse: Englisch als L2 und Deutsch als L3. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 242-256.
[55] Hufeisen, B. (1998). L3-Stand der Forschung-Was bleibt zu tun? In B. Hufeisen, & B. Lindemann (Eds.), Tertiùrsprachen. Teorien, Modelle, Methoden (pp. 169-183). Tübingen: Stauffenberg.
[56] Hufeisen, B., & Fouser, R. J. (2005). Introductory Readings in L3. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.
[57] Iverson, M. (2009). Competing SLA hypotheses Assessed: Comparing Heritage and Successive Spanish Bilinguals of L3 Brazilian Portuguese. In H. Pires, & J. Rothman (Eds.), Minimalist Inquiries into Child and Adult Language Acquisition: Case Studies across Portuguese (pp. 221-244). Berlin/New York: Mouton De Gruyter.
[58] Jessner, U. (2003). The Nature of Cross-Linguistic Interaction in the Multilingual System. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Multilingual Lexicon (pp. 45-56). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48367-7_4
[59] Jessner, U. (2006). Linguistic Awareness in Multilinguals. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9780748619139.001.0001
[60] Jessner, U. (2008). Teaching Third Languages: Findings, Trends and Challenges. Language Teaching, 41, 15-56.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0261444807004739
[61] Kean, M. L. (1986). Core Issues in Transfer. In E. Kellerman, & M. Sharwood (Eds.), Cross-Linguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press.
http://revistas.udistrital.edu.co/ojs/index.php/calj/article/view/97
[62] Kellerman, E. (1983). Now You See It, Now You Don’t. In S. Gass, & L. Selinker (Eds.), Language Transfer in Language Learning (pp. 112-134). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
[63] Kellerman, E. (1995). Cross-Linguistic Influence: Transfer to Nowhere? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 15, 125-150.
[64] Klein, E. (1995). Second Versus Third Language Acquisition: Is There a Difference? Language Learning, 45, 419-465.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1995.tb00448.x
[65] Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practices in SLA. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
[66] Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
[67] Leung, Y. K. (2009). Third Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[68] Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From Intention to Articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[69] Magiste, E. (1984). Learning a Third Language. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 5, 415-421.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1984.9994170
[70] Mansour, G. (1993). Multilingualism and Nation Building. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[71] Meisel, J. (1983). Transfer as a Second Language Strategy. Language and Communication, 3, 11-46.
[72] Mikes, T. (2010). Inclusive Minority Governance in Finland, South Tirol and Slovakia. The Annual of Language & Politics and Politics of Identity, 4, 59-74.
[73] Missler, B. (1999). Fremdsprachenlernerfahrungen und Lernstrategien: Eine empirische Untersuchung. Tübingen: Stauffenberg.
[74] Moser, H. (1982). Zur Situation des Deutschen in Sudtirol. Sprachwissenschaftliche Beitrage zu den Fragen von Sprachnorm und Sprachkontakt. Innsbruck.
[75] Murphy, S. (2003). Second Language Transfer during L3 Acquisition. Working Papers in TESOL, Applied Linguistics, 3, 1-21.
[76] Odlin, T. (1989). Language Transfer: Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524537
[77] Odlin, T. (1990). Word Order Transfer, Metalinguistic Awareness, and Constraints on Foreign Language Learning. In W. Patten, & J. Lee (Eds.), Second Language Acquisition/Foreign Language Learning (pp. 95-117). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[78] ò Laoire, M., & Aronin, L. (2004). Exploring Multilingualism in Cultural Contexts: Towards a Notion of Multilinguality. In C. Hoffmann, & J. Ytsma (Eds.), Trilingualism in Family, School and Community (pp. 11-29). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[79] Paradis, M. (1987). The Assessment of Bilingual Aphasia. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
[80] Pienemann, M. (1984). Psychological Constraints on the Teachability of Languages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6, 186-214.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100005015
[81] Pienemann, M. (1998). Language Processing and Second Language Development: Processability Theory. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sibil.15
[82] Pinker, S. (1994). The Language Instinct. London: Penguin.
[83] Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence in Spanish Y Termino en español: Toward a Typology of Code-Switching. Linguistics, 18, 581-618.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ling.1980.18.7-8.581
[84] Ridley, J., & Singleton, D. (1995). Contrastivity and Individual Learner Contrasts. Fremdsprachen Lernen und Lehren, 24, 123-137.
[85] Riehl, C. (2001). Schreiben, Text und Mehrsprachigkeit: Zur Textproduktion in mehrsprachigen Gesellschaften am Beispiel der deutschsprachigen Minderheiten in Südtirol und Ostbelgien. Tübingen: Stauffenberg.
[86] Ringbom, H. (1986). Crosslinguistic Influence and the Foreign Language Learning Process. In E. Kellerman, & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 150-162). New York: Pergamon Press.
[87] Ringbom, H. (1987). The Role of L1 in Foreign Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[88] Ringbom, H. (2001). Lexical Transfer in L3 Production. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (pp. 59-68). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[89] Ringbom, H. (2005). L2-Transfer in Third Language Acquisition. In B. Hufeisen, & R. J. Fouser (Eds.), Introductory Readings in L3 (pp. 71-82). Tübingen: Stauffenburg Verlag.
[90] Romaine, S. (1995). Bilingualism. Blackwell: Oxford.
[91] Rosenberg, M. (1996). Raising Bilingual Children. The Internet TESL Journal, II.
[92] Rothman, J., & Cabrelli, J. (2009). What Variables Condition Syntactic Transfer? A Look at the L3 Initial State. Second Language Research, 25, 1-30.
[93] Rothman, J. (2010). On the Typological Economy of Syntactic Transfer: Word Order and High/Low Attachment Preference in Relative Clause Interpretations in L3 Brazilian Portuguese. (In Review) International Review of Applied Linguistics, 48, 245-273.
[94] Rothman, J. (2011). L3 Syntactic Transfer Selectivity and Typological Determinacy: The Typological Primacy Model. Second Language Research, 27, 107-127.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267658310386439
[95] Safont Jordà, M. P. (1995). Third Language Learners: Pragmatic Production and Awareness. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[96] Sagasta Errasti, M. P. (2003). Acquiring Writing Skills in a Third Language: The Positive Effects of Bilingualism. The International Journal of Bilingualism, 7, 27-42.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/13670069030070010301
[97] Schachter, J. (1974). An Error in Error Analysis. Language Learning, 24, 205-214.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1974.tb00502.x
[98] Schmid, S. (1996). Multilingualer Fremdsprachunterricht: Ein didaktischer Versuch mit Lernstrategien. Multilingua, 15, 55-90.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mult.1996.15.1.55
[99] Schwartz, B. D., & Sprouse, R. A. (1996). L2 Cognitive States and the Full Transfer/Full Access Model. Second Language Research, 12, 40-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026765839601200103
[100] Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. Product Information International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 10, 209-241.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209
[101] Selinker, L., & Baumgartner Cohen, B. (1995). Multiple Language Acquisition: ‘Damn It, Why Can’t I Keep These Two Languages Apart’. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 8, 115-121.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07908319509525195
[102] Selinker, L., & Lakshmanan, U. (1993). Language Transfer and Fossilization: The Multiple Effects Principle. In S. Gass, & L. Selinker (Eds.), Language Transfer in Language Learning (Rev. ed., pp. 197-216). Philadelphia: Benjamins.
[103] Shanon, B. (1991). Faulty Language Selection in Polyglots. Language and Cognitive Processes, 6, 339-350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01690969108406947
[104] Sharwood Smith, M., & Kellerman, E. (1986). Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press.
[105] Shibatani, M., & Bynon, T. (1995). Approaches to Language Typology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
[106] Sikogukira, M. (1993). Influence of Languages other than the L1 on a Foreign Language: A Case of Transfer from L2 to L3. Edinburgh Working Papers, Applied Linguistics, 4, 110-132.
[107] Singh, R., & Carroll, S. (1979). L1, L2, and L3. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 5, 51-63.
[108] Singleton, D. (2003). Perspectives on the Multilingual Lexicon: A Critical Synthesis. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Multilingual Lexicon (pp. 167-176). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48367-7_12
[109] Swan, M., & Smith, B. (2001). Learner English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667121
[110] Thomas, J. (1988). The Role Played by Metalinguistic Awareness in Second and Third Language Learning. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 9, 235-246.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1988.9994334
[111] Treffers-Daller, J., & Willemyns, R. (2002). Language Contact at the Romance-Germanic Language Border. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[112] Vildomec, V. (1963). Multilingualism. Netherlands: A.W. Sythoff-Leyden.
[113] Vogel, T. (1992). English und Deutsch gibt es immer Krieg. Sprachverarbeitungprozesse beim Erwerb des Deutschen als Drittsprache. Zielsprache Deutsch, 23, 95-99.
[114] Vogel, T. (2005). German and English, They’re always Fighting. Language Assimilation Process in the Acquisition of German as a Third Language. Tübingen: Stauffenberg.
[115] Vogel, S., Maurer, O., Wytrzens, H. K., & Larcher, M (2007). Perceptions of Mountain Farming in South Tyrol: Cultural Differences in a Border Region. In J. Kabrda, & I. Bicik (Eds.), Man in the Landscape across Frontiers: Landscape and Land Use Change in Central European Border Regions, Conference Proceedings of the IGU/LUCC Central Europe Conference 2007, Slovenia-Austria-Slovakia-Czech Republic, Prague, Charles University, 28 August-4 September 2007, 209-220.
[116] Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton.
[117] Williams, S., & Hammarberg, B. (1998). Language Switches in L3 Production: Implications for a Polyglot Speaking Model. Applied Linguistics, 19, 295-333.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/19.3.295
[118] ZhaoHong, H. (2004). Fossilization in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
[119] Zobl, H. (1992). Prior Linguistic Knowledge and the Conservatism of the Learning Procedure: Grammaticality Judgements of Unilingual and Multilingual Learners. In S. Gass, & L. Selinker (Eds.), Language Transfer in Language Learning (pp. 176-196). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lald.5.12zob

Copyright © 2023 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.