Cosmetic Surgery as Intrasexual Competition: The Mediating Role of Social Comparison

Abstract

Cosmetic surgical procedures have previously been associated with some risks to psychological and physical health. Yet such procedures are on the rise, highlighting the need for a better understanding of the factors which might underlie the decision to undergo cosmetic surgery. In a sample of 297 young adults (192 women), we examined the relationship between intrasexual competition (IC), social comparison, and individuals’ attitudes, perceived risks, and desired spending on cosmetic surgical procedures. Results showed that women perceived more risk to cosmetic surgery, yet held more positive attitudes and desire to spend on cosmetic surgery compared to men. For both men and women, IC predicted positive attitudes and desired spending on cosmetic surgery. Social comparison mediated all relationships between IC and cosmetic surgery variables. Cosmetic surgery is discussed as a potential form of intrasexual competition rooted in the mate-preferences of the opposite sex.

Share and Cite:

Arnocky, S. & Piché, T. (2014). Cosmetic Surgery as Intrasexual Competition: The Mediating Role of Social Comparison. Psychology, 5, 1197-1205. doi: 10.4236/psych.2014.510132.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Abed, R. T. (1998). The Sexual Competition Hypothesis for Eating Disorders. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 71, 525-547.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1998.tb01007.x
[2] Alsarraf, R., Larrabee, W. F., Anderson, S., Murakami, C. S., & Johnson, C. M. (2001). Measuring Cosmetic Facial Plastic Surgery Outcomes: A Pilot Study. Archives of Facial Plastic Surgery, 3, 198-201.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archfaci.3.3.198
[3] American Society of Plastic Surgeons (2013). ASPS National Clearinghouse of Plastic Surgery Procedural Statistics.
http://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/plastic-surgery-statistics/2013.html
[4] American Society for Reproductive Medicine (2012). Age and Fertility: A Guide for Patients.
https://www.asrm.org/Booklet_Age_and_Fertility/
[5] Arnocky, S., Sunderani, S., Miller, J., & Vaillancourt, T. (2012). Jealousy Mediates the Relationship between Attractiveness Comparison and Females’ Indirect Aggression. Personal Relationships, 19, 290-303.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2011.01362.x
[6] Arnocky, S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2012). A Multi-Informant Longitudinal Study on the Relationship between Aggression, Peer Victimization, and Dating Status in Adolescence. Evolutionary Psychology, 10, 253-270.
[7] Baron, R., & Kenny, D. (1986). The Moderator—Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
[8] Borah, G., Rankin, M., & Wey, P. (1999). Psychological Complications in 281 Surgery Practices. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 104, 1241-1246.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199910000-00002
[9] Buss, D. M. (1988). The Evolution of Human Intrasexual Competition: Tactics of Mate Attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 616-628.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.616
[10] Buss, D. M., Abbott, M., Angleitner, A., Asherian, A., Biaggio, A., Blanca-Villasenor, A., & Yang, K. S. (1990). International Preferences in Selecting Mates: A Study of 37 Cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 21, 5-47.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022190211001
[11] Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual Strategies Theory: An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204-232.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.2.204
[12] Buunk, B. P., & Fisher, M. L. (2009). Individual Differences in Intrasexual Competition. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 7, 37-48.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/JEP.7.2009.1.5
[13] Cash, T. F., & Horton, C. E. (1983). Aesthetic Surgery: Effects of Rhinoplasty on the Social Perception of Patients by Others. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 72, 543-548.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006534-198310000-00025
[14] Castle, D. J., Honigman, R. J., & Phillips, K. A. (2002). Does Cosmetic Surgery Improve Psychosocial Wellbeing? The Medical Journal of Australia, 176, 601-604.
[15] Davis, K. (1995). Reshaping the Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery. New York: Routledge.
[16] Delinsky, S. S. (2005). Cosmetic Surgery: A Common and Accepted Form of Self-Improvement? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 2012-2028.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02207.x
[17] Dull, D., & West, C. (1991). Accounting for Cosmetic Surgery: The Accomplishment of Gender. Social Problems, 38, 54-70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/800638
[18] Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202
[19] Faer, L. M., Hendriks, A., Abed, R. T., & Figueredo, A. J. (2005). The Evolutionary Psychology of Eating Disorders: Female Competition for Mates or for Status? Psychology and Psychotherapy, 78, 397-417.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/147608305X42929
[20] Gilbert, P., Price, J., & Allan, S. (1995). Social Comparison, Social Attractiveness and Evolution: How Might They Be Related? New Ideas in Psychology, 13, 149-165.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0732-118X(95)00002-X
[21] Gabriel, S. E., Woods, J. E., O’Fallon, W. M., Beard, C. M., Kurland, L. T., & Melton, L. J. (1997). Complications Leading to Surgery after Breast Implantation. New England Journal of Medicine, 336, 677-682.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199703063361001
[22] Grazer, F., & de Jong, R. H. (2000). Fatal Outcomes from Liposuction: Census Survey of Cosmetic Surgeons. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 105, 436-446.
[23] Hamilton-Fairley, D., Kiddy, D., Watson, H., & Franks, S. (1992). Association of Moderate Obesity with a Poor Pregnancy Outcome in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Treated with Low Dose Gonadotrophin. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 99, 128-131.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb14470.x
[24] Hanson Frieze, I., Olson, J. E., & Russell, J. (2006). Attractiveness and Income for Men and Women in Management. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1039-1057.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00458.x
[25] Hawkins, N., Richards, P. S., Granley, H. M., & Stein, D. M. (2004). The Impact of Exposure to the Thin-Ideal Media Image on Women. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 12, 35-50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10640260490267751
[26] Henderson, J. J. A., & Anglin, J. M. (2003). Facial Attractiveness Predicts Longevity. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 351-365.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00036-9
[27] Henderson-King, D., & Brooks, K. D. (2009). Materialism, Sociocultural Appearance Messages, and Paternal Attitudes Predict College Women’s Attitudes about Cosmetic Surgery. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 133-142.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01480.x
[28] Henderson-King, D., & Henderson-King, E. (2005). Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery: Scale Development and Validation. Body Image, 2, 137-149.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.003
[29] Hill, S. E., & Durante, K. M. (2011). Courtship, Competition, and the Pursuit of Attractiveness: Mating Goals Facilitate Health-Related Risk Taking and Strategic Risk Suppression in Women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 383-394.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167210395603
[30] Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Zierk, K. L., & Krones, J. M. (1994). Evolution and Social Cognition: Contrast Effects as a Function of Sex, Dominance, and Physical Attractiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 210-217.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167294202008
[31] Li, N. P., Bailey, M. J., Kenrick, D. T., & Linsenmeier, J. A. W. (2002). The Necessities and Luxuries of Mate Preferences: Testing the Tradeoffs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 947-955.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.947
[32] Li, N. P., Smith, A. R., Griskevicius, V., Cason, M. J., & Bryan, A. (2010). Intrasexual Competition and Eating Restriction in Heterosexual and Homosexual Individuals. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 365-372.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.05.004
[33] MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A Comparison of Methods to Test Mediation and Other Intervening Variable Effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83-104.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83
[34] Maner, J. K., Gailliot, M. T., Rouby, D. A., & Miller, S. L. (2007). Can’t Take My Eyes off You: Attentional Adhesion to Mates and Rivals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 389-401.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.389
[35] Markey, C. M., & Markey, P. M. (2009). Correlates of Young Women’s Interest in Obtaining Cosmetic Surgery. Sex Roles, 61, 158-166.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9625-5
[36] Metwally, M., Ong, K. J., Ledger, W. L., & Li, T. C. (2008). Does High Body Mass Index Increase the Risk of Miscarriage after Spontaneous and Assisted Conception? A Meta-Analysis of the Evidence. Fertility and Sterility, 90, 714-726.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.07.1290
[37] Nabi, R. L. (2009). Cosmetic Surgery Makeover Programs and Intentions to Undergo Cosmetic Enhancements: A Consideration of Three Models of Media Effects. Human Communication Research, 35, 1-27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2008.01336.x
[38] Park, L. E., Calogero, R. M., Harwin, M. J., & DiRaddo, A. (2009). Predicting Interest in Cosmetic Surgery: Interactive Effects of Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity and Negative Appearance Comments. Body Image, 6, 186-193.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.02.003
[39] Rankin, M., Borah, G. L., Perry, A. W., & Wey, P. D. (1998). Quality-of-Life Outcomes after Cosmetic Surgery. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 102, 2139-2147.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199811000-00053
[40] Rhodes, G., Simmons, L. W., & Peters, M. (2005). Attractiveness and Sexual Behavior: Does Attractiveness Enhance Mating Success? Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 186-201.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.08.014
[41] Rhodes, G., Zebrowitz, L. A., Clark, A., Kalick, S. M., Hightower, A., & McKay, R. (2001). Do Facial Averageness and Symmetry Signal Health? Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 31-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00060-X
[42] Sarwer, D. B., Cash, T. F., Magee, L., Williams, E. F., Thompson, J. K., Roehrig, M. et al. (2005). Female College Students and Cosmetic Surgery: An Investigation of Experiences, Attitudes, and Body Image. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 115, 931-938.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.PRS.0000153204.37065.D3
[43] Sarwer, D. B., Gibbons, L. M., Magee, L., Baker, J. L., Casas, L. A., Glat, P. M., Gold, A. H., Jewell, M. L., LaRossa, D., Nahai, F., & Young, V. L. (2005). A Prospective, Multi-Site Investigation of Patient Satisfaction and Psychosocial Status Following Cosmetic Surgery. Aesthetic Surgery Journal, 25, 263-269.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asj.2005.03.009
[44] Sarwer, D. B., Wadden, T. A., Pertschuk, M. J., & Whitaker, L. A. (1998). Body Image Dissatisfaction and Body Dysmorphic Disorder in 100 Cosmetic Surgery Patients. Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, 101, 1644-1649.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199805000-00035
[45] Shackelford, T. K., & Larsen, R. J. (1999). Facial Attractiveness and Physical Health. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 71-76.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(98)00036-1
[46] Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive Significance of Female Physical Attractiveness: Role of Waist-to-Hip Ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293-307.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293
[47] Singh, D., & Randall, P. K. (2007). Beauty Is in the Eye of the Plastic Surgeon: Waist-Hip Ratio (WHR) and Women’s Attractiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 329-340.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.003
[48] Soler, C., Nunez, M., Gutierrez, R., Nunez, J., Medina, P., Sancho, M., álvarez, J., & Nunez, A. (2003). Facial Attractiveness in Men Provides Clues to Semen Quality. Evolution & Human Behavior, 24, 199-207.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00013-8
[49] Sunderani, S., Arnocky, S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2013). Individual Differences in Mate Poaching: An Examination of Hormonal, Dispositional, and Behavioral Mate-Value Traits. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 533-542.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9974-y
[50] Swami, V. (2009). Body Appreciation, Media Influence, and Weight Status Predict Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery among Female Undergraduates. Body Image, 6, 315-317.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.07.001
[51] Swami, V. (2010). Translation and Validation of the Malay Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale. Body Image, 7, 372-375.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.07.005
[52] Swami, V., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Bridges, S., & Furnham, A. (2009). Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery: Personality and Individual Difference Predictors. Body Image, 6, 7-13.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.09.004
[53] Symons, D. (1979). The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
[54] Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L., & Tantleff, S. (1991). The Physical Appearance Comparison Scale (PACS). The Behavior Therapist, 14, 174.
[55] Thornhill, R., & Alcock, J. (1983). The Evolution of Insect Mating Systems. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674433960
[56] Thornton, B., Ryckman, R. M., & Gold, J. A. (2013). Competitive Orientations and Women’s Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery. Psychology, 4, 67-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2013.41009
[57] Thorpe, S. J., Ahmed, B., & Steer, K. (2004). Reasons for Undergoing Cosmetic Surgery: A Retrospective Study. Sexualities, Evolution & Gender, 6, 75-96.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616660412331303857
[58] Tovée, M. J., & Cornelissen, P. L. (2001). Female and Male Perceptions of Female Physical Attractiveness in Front-View and Profile. British Journal of Psychology, 92, 391-402.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000712601162257
[59] United Kingdom Health Committee (2012). Sixteenth Report: PIP Breast Implants and Regulation of Cosmetic Interventions.
www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhealth/1816/181602.htm
[60] Weeden, J., & Sabini, J. (2005). Physical Attractiveness and Health in Western Societies: A Review. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 635-653.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.635
[61] Yoho, R. A., Romaine, J. J., & O’Neil, D. (2005). Review of the Liposuction, Abdominoplasty, and Face-Lift Mortality and Morbidity Risk Literature. Dermatologic Surgery, 31, 733-743.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00042728-200507000-00001

Copyright © 2023 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.