Exploring the Association between Adult Attachment Styles in Romantic Relationships, Perceptions of Parents from Childhood and Relationship Satisfaction

Gwen Gleeson, Amanda Fitzgerald

School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.

DOI: 10.4236/health.2014.613196                

Abstract

Little research has examined how attachment styles in childhood are related to current romantic relationship experiences. The aim of this study was to explore the association between perceptions of childhood experiences with parents, attachment styles in romantic relationships, and relationship satisfaction in a sample of young adults. The sample consisted of 227 participants, 153 of which were university students and the remaining 69 were members of the general population. Of these, 177 (78%) were female and 50 (22%) were male, with an age range of 18 - 39. Participants completed a battery of self-report measures assessing their attachment style in romantic relationships, satisfaction in their current romantic relationship, and an adjective checklist describing their parents and their parent’s relationship with each other. The majority of males had an avoidant-fearful style, while females tended to have an avoidant-fearful or secure style. Findings were that participants’ descriptions of their mother, father, and parental relationship were associated with their attachment style. In terms of a current romantic relationship, those with a secure attachment style were much more likely to be in a relationship whereas those with an avoidant-fearful style were not. Secure participants were more satisfied in their relationships than the insecure styles of attachment. Finally, chi-square tests revealed that there was no association between gender and attachment style. Results were discussed in terms of methodological limitations such as the use of self-report measures; theoretical weaknesses for example the variability in the approaches used in attachment research; and future research, which included the use of longitudinal studies which may offer insight into how early parenting behaviours act as predictors of later relationship functioning.

Keywords

Adult Attachment, Romantic Relationships, Relationship Satisfaction, Childhood

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books, New York.
[2]	Feeney, J.A. (2008) Adult Romantic Attachment: Developments in the Study of Couple Relationships. In: Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P.A., Eds., Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, 2nd Edition, Guilford Press, New York, 456-481.
[3]	Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E. and Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
[4]	Main, M. and Solomon, J. (1990) Procedures for Identifying Disorganised/ Disorientated Infants during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In: Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D. and Cummings, M., Eds., Attachment in the Preschoolyears, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 121-160.
[5]	Bartholomew, K. and Horowitz, L.M. (1991) Attachment Styles among Young Adults: A Test of a Four Category Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 226-244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226
[6]	Crowell, J.A., Treboux, D. and Waters, E. (2002) Stability of Attachment Representations: The Transition to Marriage. Developmental Psychology, 38, 467-479. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.467
[7]	Waters, E., Hamilton, C.E. and Weinfield, N.S. (2000) The Stability of Attachment Security from Infancy to Adolescence and Early Adulthood: General Introduction. Child Development, 71, 678-683. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00175
[8]	Miga, E.M., Hare, A., Allen, J.P. and Manning, N. (2010) The Relation of Insecure Attachment States of Mind and Romantic Attachment Styles to Adolescent Aggression in Romantic Relationships. Attachment & Human Development, 12, 463-481. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2010.501971
[9]	George, C., Kaplan, N. and Main, M. (1985) Adult Attachment Interview Protocol. Unpublished Manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.
[10]	Hesse, E. (2008) The Adult Attachment Interview: Protocol, Method of Analysis, and Empirical Studies. In: Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P.R., Eds., Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, 2nd Edition, Guilford Press, New York, 552-598.
[11]	Carr, A. (2011) Positive Psychology. Routledge, East Sussex.
[12]	Hazan, C. and Shaver, P.R. (1987) Romantic Love Conceptualised as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
[13]	Dalton, W.T., Frick-Horbury, D. and Kitzmann, K.M. (2006) Young Adults’ Retrospective Reports of Parenting by Mothers and Fathers: Associations with Current Relationship Quality. The Journal of General Psychology, 133, 5-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/GENP.133.1.5-18
[14]	Vorria, P., Vairami, M., Gialaouzidis, M., Kotroni, E., Koutra, G., Markou, N., Marti, E. and Pantoleon, I. (2007) Romantic Relationships, Attachment Styles, and Experiences of Childhood. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 4, 281-309.
[15]	Collins, N.L. and Read, S.J. (1990) Adult Attachment, Working Models, and Relationship Quality in Dating Couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 644-663. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.4.644
[16]	Feeney, J.A. and Noller, P. (1990) Attachment Style as a Predictor of Adult Romantic Relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 281-291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.281
[17]	Diehl, M., Elnick, A.B., Bourbeau, L.S. and Labouvie-Vief, G. (1998) Adult Attachment Styles: Their Relations to Family Context and Personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1656-1669. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1656
[18]	Levy, K.N., Blatt, S.J. and Shaver, P.R. (1998) Attachment Styles and Parental Representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 407-419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.407
[19]	Brennan, K.A., Clarke, C.L. and Shaver, P.R. (1998) Self-Report Measurement of Adult Romantic Attachment: An Integrative Overview. In: Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., Eds., Attachment Theory and Close Relationships, Guilford, New York, 46-76.
[20]	Bartholomew, K. and Horowitz, L.M. (1991) Attachment Styles among Young Adults: A Test of a Four Category Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 226-244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226
[21]	Holmes, B.M. and Johnson, K.R. (2009) Adult Attachment and Romantic Partner Preference: A Review. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26, 833-852. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407509345653
[22]	Barone, L. and Guiducci, V. (2009) Mental Representations of Attachment in Eating Disorders: A Pilot Study Using the Adult Attachment Interview. Attachment and Human Development, 11, 405-417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616730902814770
[23]	Freeman, H. and Almond, T.M. (2010) Mapping Young Adults’ Use of Fathers for Attachment Support: Implications on Romantic Relationship Experiences. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 227-248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430903415080
[24]	Roisman, G.I., Collins, W.A., Sroufe, L.A. and Egeland, B. (2005) Predictors of Young Adults’ Representations of and Behaviour in Their Current Romantic Relationship: Prospective Tests of the Prototype Hypothesis. Attachment & Human Behaviour, 7, 105-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616730500134928
[25]	Lowyck, B., Luyten, P., Demyttenaere, K. and Corveleyn, J. (2008) The Role of Romantic Attachment and Self-Criticism and Dependency for the Relationship Satisfaction of Community Adults. Journal of Family Therapy, 30, 78-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6427.2008.00417.x
[26]	McCarthy, G. and Maughan, B. (2010) Negative Childhood Experiences and Adult Love Relationships: The Role of Internal Working Models of Attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12, 445-461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2010.501968
[27]	Mikulincer, M., Florian, V., Cowan, P.A. and Cowan, C.P. (2002) Attachment Security in Couple Relationships: A Systemic Model and Its Implications for Family Dynamics. Family Process, 41, 405-434. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.41309.x
[28]	Simpson, J.A. (1990) Influence of Attachment Styles on Romantic Relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 971-980. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971
[29]	Haydon, K.C., Roisman, G.I., Marks, M.J. and Fraley, R.C. (2011) An Empirically Derived Approach to the Latent Structure of the Adult Attachment Interview: Additional Convergent and Discriminant Validity Evidence. Attachment & Human Development, 13, 503-524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2011.602253
[30]	Holland, A.S. and Roisman, G.I. (2010) Adult Attachment Security and Young Adults’ Dating Relationships over Time: Self-Reported, Observational and Physiological Evidence. Developmental Psychology, 46, 552-557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018542
[31]	Florsheim, P. (2008) Adolescent Romantic Relations and Sexual Behaviour: Theory, Research and Practical Implications. Taylor & Francis, Mahwah, New Jersey.
[32]	Frost, D.M. and Forrester, C. (2013) Closeness Discrepancies in Romantic Relationships: Implications for Relational Well-Being, Stability and Mental Health. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 456-469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167213476896
[33]	Fraley, R.C., Waller, N.G. and Brennan, K.A. (2000) An Item Response Theory Analysis of Self-Report Measures of Adult Attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 350-365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.350
[34]	Ravitz, P., Mauder, R., Hunter, J., Sthankiya, B. and Lancee, W. (2010) Adult Attachment Measures: A 25-Year Review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 69, 419-432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.08.006
[35]	Funk, J.L. and Rogge, R.D. (2007) Testing the Ruler with Item Response Theory: Increasing Precision of Measurement for Relationship Satisfaction with the Couples Satisfaction Index. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 572-583. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.572
[36]	Graham, J.M., Diebels, K.J. and Barnow, Z.B. (2011) The Reliability of Relationship Satisfaction: A Reliability Generalisation Meta-Analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 39-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022441
[37]	Qualitrics Labs, Inc. (2013) Survey Research Suite Software. Qualitrics Labs, Inc., Provo, Utah.
[38]	Hampton, K., Goulet, S.L., Rainie, L. and Purcell, K. (2011) Social Networking Sites and Our Lives. Pew Internet and American Life Project, Washington DC.
[39]	Stevens, J. (1996) Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences. 3rd Edition, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahway, NJ.
[40]	Coolican, H. (2013) Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. 5th Edition, Routledge, New York.
[41]	Field, A., Miles, J. and Field, Z. (2012) Discovering Statistics Using R. Sage Publications Ltd., London.
[42]	Benjamini, Y. and Hochberg, Y. (1995) Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 57, 289-300.
[43]	Brennan, K.A., Shaver, P.R. and Tobey, A.E. (1991) Attachment Styles, Gender and Parental Problem Drinking. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8, 451-466. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026540759184001
[44]	Koskina, N. and Giovazolias, T. (2010) The Effect of Attachment Insecurity in the Development of Eating Disturbances across Gender: The Role of Body Dissatisfaction. The Journal of Psychology, 144, 449-471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2010.496651
[45]	Carranza, L.V. and Kilmann, P.R. (2000) Links between Perceived Parent Characteristics and Attachment Variables for Women from Intact Families. Adolescence, 35, 295-312.
[46]	Mikulincer, M. and Shaver, P.R. (2007) Attachment in Adulthood. Structure, Dynamics and Change. The Guilford Press, London.
[47]	Fraley, R.C. and Shaver, P.R. (2000) Adult Romantic Attachment: Theoretical Developments Emerging Controversies and Unanswered Questions. Review of General Psychology, 4, 132-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132
[48]	Fraley, R.C. and Spieker, S.J. (2003) What Are the Differences between Dimensional and Categorical Models of Individual Differences in Attachment? Reply to Cassidy (2003), Cummings (2003), Sroufe (2003) and Waters and Beauchaine (2003). Developmental Psychology, 39, 423-429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.423
[49]	Cowan, P.A. and Cowan, C.P. (2007) Attachment Theory: Seven Unresolved Issues and Questions for Future Research. Research in Human Development, 4, 181-201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15427600701663007
[50]	Sroufe, A. (2003) Attachment Categories as Reflections of Multiple Dimensions: Comment on Fraley and Spieker (2003). Developmental Psychology, 39, 413-416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.413
[51]	Fraley, R.C. (2012) Information on the Experiences in Close Relationships Revised (ECR-R) Adult Attachment Questionnaire. http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/measures/ecrr.htm
[52]	Sibley, C.G., Fischer, R. and Liu, J.H. (2005) Reliability and Validity of the Revised Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR-R) Self-Report Measure of Adult Romantic Attachment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1524-1536. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167205276865
[53]	Fletcher, R. (2009) Promoting Infant Well-Being in the Context of Maternal Depression by Supporting the Father. Infant Mental Health Journal, 30, 95-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20205
[54]	George, M.R.W., Cummings, E.M. and Davies, P.T. (2010) Positive Aspects of Fathering and Mothering and Children’s Attachment in Kindergarten. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 107-119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430903414752
[55]	Shaughnessy, J., Zechmeister, E. and Zechmeister, J. (2006) Research Methods in Psychology. 7th Edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
[56]	Hardt, J. and Rutter, M. (2004) Validity of Adult Retrospective Reports of Adverse Childhood Experiences: Review of the Evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 260-273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00218.x
[57]	Brewin, C., Andres, B. and Gotlib, I. (1993) Psychopathology and Early Experience: A Reappraisal of Retrospective Reports. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 82-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.82
[58]	Del Giudice, M. (2011) Sex Differences in Romantic Attachment: A Meta-Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 193-214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167210392789
[59]	Tarabulsy, G.M., Larose, S., Bernier, A., Trottier-Sylvain, K., Girard, D., Vargas, M. and Noël, C. (2012) Attachment States of Mind in Late Adolescence and the Quality and Course of Romantic Relationships in Adulthood. Attachment and Human Development, 14, 621-643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.728358
[60]	Kilmann, P.R., Carranza, L.V. and Vendemia, J.M.C. (2006) Recollections of Parent Characteristics and Attachment Patterns for College Women of Intact vs. Non Intact Families. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 89-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.01.004