Monitoring of Environmental Mercury Exposure Using Hair as Bioindicator and the Study of Potential Factors Affecting on It in Karachi

Abstract

The World Health Organization (WHO), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have recommended the use of hair for worldwide environmental monitoring. Mercury exposure to the inhabitants of Karachi was assessed by using hair as bioindicator. Hair samples of 200 residents of Karachi were collected and analyzed through cold vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy (CVAA) technique for mercury concentration. The effects of age, gender, working status, location, food and smoking habit were investigated. Control region showed a positive correlation between HHg and age of donor while no such correlation was observed for polluted regions. Mercury exposure through cosmetic usage in female was only pronounced in control region. These results indicate that environmental pollution dominates other potential factors. Age and smoking habit were not found to be the influencing factors while an elevated mean level of mercury was noticed for regular fish consumers than rarely fish consumers. 95.33% of the samples contained HHg greater than the permissible level of 2 μg?g?1 set by WHO. An apparently healthy male donor had HHg concentration (28.24 μg?g?1) closer to the high risk concentration of 30 μg?g?1 based on WHO criteria. Whereas, two female donors of the age group of 41-50 years had HHg concentrations (10.82 and 11.84 μg?g?1) higher than the NOAEL (no observed adverse affects level) value (10 μg?g?1) for females which is associated with fetus neurotoxicity. However, no symptoms of mercury toxicity were visible. The results indicate the alarming condition of pollution in the city which should be taken into further consideration.

Share and Cite:

N. Ali, S. Mohiuddin, T. Mahmood and M. Mumtaz, "Monitoring of Environmental Mercury Exposure Using Hair as Bioindicator and the Study of Potential Factors Affecting on It in Karachi," American Journal of Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 5 No. 2, 2014, pp. 83-90. doi: 10.4236/ajac.2014.52013.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] V. Mudgal, N. Madaan, A. Mudgal, R. B. Singh and S. Mishra, “Effects of Toxic Metals on Human Health,” The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2010, pp. 94-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876396001003010094
[2] D. Airey, “Mercury in Human Hair Due to Environment and Diet: A Review,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 52, 1983, pp. 303-316.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8352303
[3] T. W. Clarkson, “Mercury: Major Issues in Environmental Health,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 100, 1992, pp. 31-38.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9310031
[4] P. K. Bhattacharya, “Metal Ion Toxicity in Biochemical Systems,” In: P. K. Bhattacharya, Ed., Metal Ions in Biochemistry, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, 2006, pp. 195-196.
[5] S. A. Karabedian, F. J. M. Al-Imrah and H. K. Ibraheem, “Determination of Mercury in Hair Samples of Iraqis Population Living in Safwan and Al-Zubair Southern Basrah,” Journal of Duhok University, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2009, pp. 23-27.
[6] T. W. Clarkson, J. Crispin-Smith, O. Marsh and M. D. Trrner, “A Review of Dose-Response Relationships Resulting from Human Exposure to Methyl Mercury Compound,” In: P. A. Krenkel, Ed., Heavy Metals in the Aquatic Environment, Pergamon Press, New York, 1975, pp. 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-018068-7.50005-8
[7] City District Government Karachi (CDGK), “Official Web Portal of City District Government Karachi,” 2012.
http://14.192.147.139/cdgk/Home/Towns/tabid/72/Default.aspx
[8] S. Qureshi, “The Fast Growing Megacity Karachi as a Frontier of Environmental Challenges: Urbanization and Contemporary Urbanism Issues,” Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, Vol. 3, No. 11, 2010, pp. 306-321.
[9] S. Atiqur-Rehman and M. Z. Iqbal, “Growth of Leucaena Leucocephala (Lam.) De-Wit, in Different Soils of Korangi and Landhi Industrial Areas of Karachi, Pakistan,” Pakistan Journal of Botany, Vol. 39, No. 5, 2007, pp. 1701-1715.
[10] M. Kabir, M. Z. Iqbal, Z. R. Farooqi and M. Shafiq, “Vegetation Pattern and Soil Characteristics of the Polluted Industrial Area of Karachi,” Pakistan Journal of Botany, Vol. 42, No. 1, 2010, pp. 661-678.
[11] G. Samanta, R. Sharma, T. Roychowdhury and D. Chakraborti, “Arsenic and Other Elements in Hair, Nails, and Skin-Scales of Arsenic Victims in West Bengal, India,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 326, No. 1-3, 2004, pp. 33-47.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.12.006
[12] J. A. Hubbart, “Hair Analysis as an Environmental Health Bioindicator: A Case-Study Using Pelage of the California Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi),” International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2012, pp. 277-294.
[13] E. T. Anim, E. S. Agorku and A. K. Anim, “A Comparative Analysis on Levels of Mercury in Human Scalp Hair of Students from Different Locations in Ghana,” Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2011, pp. 293-296.
[14] J. L. Rodrigues, B. L. Batista, J. A. Nunes, C. J. S. Passos and F. Barbosa, “Evaluation of the Use of Human Hair for Biomonitoring the Deficiency of Essential and Exposure to Toxic Elements,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 405, No. 1-3, 2008, pp. 370-376.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.002
[15] P. Montuori, E. Jover, A. Pagano, J. M. Bayona and M. Triassi, “Improvements on a Total Mercury Determination Method in Human Hair Using Graphite-Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry De-tection,” Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene, Vol. 48, No. 2, 2007, pp. 43-46.
[16] H. Akagi, E. S. Castillo, N. Cortes-Maramba, A. T. Francisco-Rivera and T. D. Timbang, “Health Assessment for Mercury Exposure among Schoolchildren Residing near a Gold Processing and Refining Plant in Apokon, Tagum, Davao del Norte, Philippines,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 259, No. 1-3, 2000, pp. 31-43.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00547-7
[17] A. Siddique, N. A. Zaigham, S. Mohiuddin, M. Mumtaz, S. Saied and K. A. Mallick, “Risk Zone Mapping of Lead Pollution in Urban Groundwater,” Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2012, pp. 91-96.
http://dx.doi.org/10.6000/1927-5129.2012.08.01.15
[18] A. Zubair and S. N. Siddiqui, “Status of Noise Pollution—A Case Study of Gulshan-E-Iqbal Town, Karachi,” Indus Journal of Management and Social Science, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011, pp.100-105.
[19] A. P. Azad and R. Ahmed, “A Geographical Study of Land-Use in the Commercial Heart of Karachi (Saddar),” Pakistan Geographical Review, Vol. 61, No. 2, 2006, pp. 64-82.
[20] T. A. Rao, A. H. Shaikh and M. Ahmed, “Airborne Fungal Flora of Karachi, Pakistan,” Pakistan Journal of Botany, Vol. 41, No. 3, 2009, pp. 1421-1428.
[21] M. A. Khan, “Problems and Prospects of Urban Environmental Management in Pakistan,” The Pakistan Development Review, Vol. 35, No. 4, 1996, pp. 507-523.
[22] M. Z. Chaudhary, N. Ahmad, A. Mashiatullah, N. Ahmad, T. Javed, M. S. Khan and R. M. Qureshi, “Elemental Depth Profile in Sediment Core of Korangi Creek along Karachi Coast, Pakistan,” The Nucleus, Vol. 49, No. 1, 2012, pp. 39-48.
[23] M. S. Saif, Midrarul-Haq and K. S. Memon, “Heavy Metals Contamination through Industrial Effluent to Irrigation Water and Soil in Korangi Area of Karachi (Pakistan),” International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, Vol.7, No. 4, 2005, pp. 646-648.
[24] M. Mumtaz, “Geochemical Studies of Heavy Metals in the Seawater along Karachi-Makran Coast,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Karachi, Karachi, 2002.
[25] Y. Nergis, M. Sharif and W. Ahmed, “Potable Water as a Source of Heavy Metals in the Blood of Neuro Patients of Karachi, Pakistan,” Journal of Chemical Society of Pakistan, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2007, pp. 86-93.
[26] Biolab Medical Unit, “Hair Mineral Analysis,” 2012.
http://www.biolab.co.uk/docs/Hair_Mineral_Analysis.pdf
[27] I. C. Nnorom, J. C. Igwe and J. C. Ejimone, “Multielement Analyses of Human Scalp Hair Samples from Three Distant Towns in Southeastern Nigeria,” African Journal of Biotechnology, Vol. 4, No. 10, 2005, pp. 1124-1127.
[28] I. F. Rivai, “Heavy Metals in Human Hair Related to Age Groups and Automotive Pollution Levels of Bandarlampung city, Indonesia,” Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 66, No. 4, 2001, pp. 443-448. http://dx.doi.org/10.6000/1927-5129.2012.08.01.15
[29] D. K. Combs, R. D. Goodrich and J. C. Meiske, “Mineral Concentrations in Hair as Indicators of Mineral Status: A Review,” Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 54, No. 2, 1982, pp. 391-398.
[30] R. Pereira, R. Ribeiro and F. Goncalves, “Scalp Hair Analysis as a Tool in Assessing Human Exposure to Heavy Metals (S. Domingos Mine, Portugal),” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 327, No. 1-3, 2004, pp. 81-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.01.017
[31] J. Batista, M. Schuhmacher, J. L. Domingo and J. Corbella, “Mercury in Hair for a Child Population from Tarragona Province, Spain,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 193, No. 2, 1996, pp. 143-148.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(96)05340-5
[32] C. P. Kinabo, “Comparative Analysis of Mercury Content in Human Hair and Cosmetic Products Used in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,” Tanzania Journal of Science, Vol. 31, No. 1, 2005, pp. 83-90.
[33] World Health Organization (WHO), “Mercury in Skin Lightening Products,” 2012.
http://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_health/mercury_flyer
[34] D. Airey, “Total Mercury Concentrations in Human Hair from 13 Countries in Relation to Fish Consumption and Location,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1983, pp. 157-180.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(83)90067-0
[35] K. Kruzikova, H. Modra, R. Kensova, B. Skocovska, T. Wlasow, T. Svoboda and Z. Svobodova, “Mercury in Human Hair as an Indicator of the Fish Consumption,” Neuro Endocrinology Letter, Vol. 29, No. 5, 2008, pp. 675-679.
[36] R. Lutter and E. Irwin, “Mercury in the Environment: A Volatile Problem,” Environment, Vol. 44, No. 9, 2002, pp. 24-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00139157.2002.10543561
[37] A. Q. Shah, T. G. Kazi, J. A. Baig, H. I. Afridi, G. A. Kandhro, S. Khan, N. F. Kolachi and S. K. Wadhwa, “Determination of Total Mercury in Muscle Tissues of Marine Fish Species by Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction Followed by Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,” Pakistan Journal of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2010, pp. 12-17.
[38] T. Agusa, T. Kunito, H. Iwata, I. Monirith, T. S. Tana, A. Subramanian and T. Tanabe, “Mercury Contamination in Human Hair and Fish from Cambodia: Levels, Specific Accumulation and Risk Assessment,” Environmental Pollution, Vol. 134, No. 1, 2005, pp. 79-86.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.07.015

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.