Deaf Individuals’ Bilingual Abilities: American Sign Language Proficiency, Reading Skills, and Family Characteristics

Brittany L. Freel, M. Diane Clark, Melissa L. Anderson, Gizelle L. Gilbert, Millicent M. Musyoka, Peter C. Hauser
DOI: 10.4236/psych.2011.21003                

Abstract

The current study investigated the bilingual abilities of 55 Deaf individuals, examining both American Sign Language (ASL) competency and English reading skills. Results revealed a positive relationship between ASL competency and English skills, with highly competent signers scoring higher on a measure of reading comprehension. Additionally, family characteristics (e.g., parental education level, family hearing status) were entered into the analysis to ascertain their effect on Deaf individuals’ bilingual abilities. The findings support the theory that competency in ASL may serve as a bridge to the acquisition of English print. Moreover, the findings provide support for the critical period hypothesis for first language acquisition and its later impact on other cognitive and academic skills.

Keywords

Deaf, American Sign Language, Reading, Bilingual, Family

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Allen, B. (2002). ASL-English bilingual classroom: The families’ perspectives. Bilingual Research Journal, 26, 149-168.
[2]	Allen, T. E., Hwang, Y., & Stansky, A. (2009). Measuring factors that predict deaf students’ reading abilities: The VL2 Toolkit-Project Design and Early Findings. Paper Presented at the 2009 Annual Meeting of the Association of College Educators of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, New Orleans.
[3]	Bailes, C. N. (2001). Integrative ASL-English language arts: Bridging paths to literacy. Sign Language Studies, 1, 147-174. doi:10.1353/sls.2001.0002
[4]	Benedict, B. S., & Sass-Lehrer, M. (2007). The ASL and English bilingual approach: A professional perspective. In S. Schwartz (Ed.), Choices in Deafness: A Parent’s Guide to Communication Options (3rd ed., pp. 185-221). Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.
[5]	Calderon, R. (2000). Parental involvement in deaf children’s education programs as a predictor of child’s language, early reading, and social emotional development. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 140-155. doi:10.1093/deafed/5.2.140
[6]	Chamberlain, C., Morford, J. P., & Mayberry, R. I. (2000). Language acquisition by eye. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
[7]	Conrad, R. (1979). The deaf school child: Language and function. London: Harper & Row.
[8]	Corina, D., & Singleton, J. (2009). Developmental social cognitive neuroscience: Insights from deafness. Child Development, 80, 952- 967. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01310.x
[9]	Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive / academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 121-129.
[10]	Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.
[11]	Cummins, J. (2006,). The relationship between ASL proficiency and English academic development: A review of the research. Paper Presented at the Workshop Challenges, Opportunities, and Choices in Education Minority Group Students, Hamar University College, Norway.
[12]	DeLana, M., Gentry, M. A., & Andrews, J. (2007). The efficacy of ASL / English bilingual education: Considering public schools. American Annals of the Deaf, 152, 73-87. doi:10.1353/aad.2007.0010
[13]	Desai, S., & Alva, S. (1998). Maternal education and child health: Is there a strong casual relationship? Demography, 35, 71-81. doi:10.2307/3004028
[14]	Easterbrooks, S., & Huston, S. (2008). Signed Reading fluency of students who are deaf/hard of hearing. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13, 37-54. doi:10.1093/deafed/enm030
[15]	Evans, C. J. (1998). Literacy acquisition in deaf children. Paper Presented at Annual Meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Language, Seattle, WA.
[16]	Evans, C. J. (2004). Literacy development in deaf students: Case studies in bilingual teaching and learning. American Annals of the Deaf, 149, 17-27. doi:10.1353/aad.2004.0011
[17]	Grosjean, F. (2001). The right of the deaf child to grow up bilingual. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
[18]	Hakuta, K. (1990). Bilingualism and bilingual education: A research perspective. Occasional Papers Series, No. 1. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
[19]	Hauser, P., Paludneviciene, R., Supalla, T., & Bavelier, D. (2008). Ame- rican Sign Language – Sentence Reproduction Test: Development & implications. In R. M. de Quadros (Ed.), Sign languages: spinning and unraveling the past, present, and future. Petrópolis, Brazil: Editora Arara Azul.
[20]	Hermans, D., Knoors, H., Ormel, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2008). The relationship between the reading and signing skills of deaf children in bilingual education programs. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13, 518-530. doi:10.1093/deafed/enn009
[21]	Johnson, R. E., Liddell, S. K., & Erting, C. J. (1998). Unlocking the curriculum: Principles for achieving access in deaf education. Gallaudet Research Institute Working Paper, 89, Washington, DC:
[22]	Gallaudet University Press.
[23]	Magnuson, K., Sexton, H., Davis-Kean, P., & Huston, A. (2009). Increases in maternal education and young children’s language skills. Merrill – Palmer Quarterly, 55, 319-350.
[24]	Marschark, M., & Harris, M. (1996). Success and failure in learning to read: The special case of deaf children. In C. Coronoldi, & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Process and Intervention. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[25]	Mayberry, R. I. (2007). When timing is everything: Age of first-lan- guage acquisition effects on second-language learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, 537-549. doi:10.1017/S0142716407070294
[26]	Mayer, C., & Akamatsu, C. (1999). Bilingual-bicultural models of literacy education for deaf students: considering the claims. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 4, 1-8. doi:10.1093/deafed/4.1.1
[27]	Mayer, C., & Wells, G. (1996). Can the linguistic interdependence theory support a bilingual-bicultural model of literacy education for deaf students? Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 1, 93-107.
[28]	Meadow, K. (1968). Early manual communication in relation to the deaf child’s intellectual, social, and communicative functioning. American Annals of the Deaf, 113, 29-41.
[29]	Mitchell, R. E., & Karchmer, M. A. (2004). When parents are deaf versus hard of hearing: patterns of sign use and school placement of deaf and hard-of-hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9, 133-152. doi:10.1093/deafed/enh017
[30]	Mounty, J., Nover, S. M., & Pucci, C. (2008). How deaf children become proficient readers: A sociocultural perspective. Presented at the Association of College Educators – Deaf and Hard of Hearing, New Orleans, LA.
[31]	Musselman, C. (2000). How do children who can’t hear learn to read an alphabetic script? A review of the literature on reading and deafness. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 9-31. doi:10.1093/deafed/5.1.9
[32]	Myers, C., Clark, M. D., Musyoka, M. M., Anderson, M. L., Gilbert, G. L., Agyen, S., & Hauser, P. C. (in press). The interaction of culture, family characteristics, reading experiences, language, and educational level: Impacts on Black Deaf individuals’ reading skills. American Annals of the Deaf.
[33]	Niemann, S., Greenstein, D., & David, D. (2004). Helping children who are deaf: Family and community support for children who do not hear well (Early assistance series for children with disabilities). Palaestra, 21, 52-53.
[34]	Perfetti, C. A., & Sandak, R. (2000). Reading optimally builds on spoken language: Implications for deaf readers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 32-50. doi:10.1093/deafed/5.1.32
[35]	Quigley, S., & Frisina, R. (1961). Institutionalization and Psycho- Educational Development of Deaf Children. CEC Research Monograph. Washington, D.C.: Council on Exceptional Children.
[36]	Singleton, J. L., Supalla, S., Litchfield, S., & Schley, S. (1998). From sign to word: Considering modality constraints in ASL / English bilingual education. Topics in Language Disorders, 18, 16-29.
[37]	Stevenson, D. L., & Baker, D. P. (1987). The family-school relation and the child’s school performance. Child Development: Special Issue: Schools and Development, 58, 1348-1357.
[38]	Stevenson, E. (1964). A study of the educational achievement of deaf children of deaf parents. California News, 80, 143.
[39]	Strong, M., & Prinz, P. (1997). A study of the relationship between American Sign Language and English literacy. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2, 37-46.
[40]	Stuckless, R., & Birch, J. (1966). The influence of early manual communication on the linguistic development of deaf children. American Annals of the Deaf, 106, 436-480.
[41]	Vernon, M., & Koh, S. D. (1970). Early manual communication and deaf children’s achievements. American Annals of the Deaf, 115, 527-536.
[42]	Wilbur, R. B. (2000). The use of ASL to support the development of English and literacy. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 81-104. doi:10.1093/deafed/5.1.81
[43]	Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock- Johnson Test of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.