Analysis of Different Rare Metals, Rare Earth Elements, and other Common Metals in Groundwater of South West Bank/Palestine by ICP/MS-Data and Health Aspects

Fuad Al-Rimawi, Khalid Kanan, Mutaz Qutob

1Department of Earth and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science and Technology, Al-Quds University, East Jerusalem, Palestine; 2Aquatic and Aquaculture Research Laboratory, Al-Quds University, East Jerusalem, Palestine..
Faculty of Science and Technology, Al-Quds University, East Jerusalem, Palestine.

DOI: 10.4236/jep.2013.410132                

Abstract

Ground water samples are collected from south West Bank/Palestine and analyzed for different rare elements (Rb, Zr, U, P, Ti, V), rare earth elements (La, Ce, and Nd), and other common trace metals (Li, Na, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, K, Bi) that most of them usually have no maximum acceptable limits as either they are considered not to be toxic to human health or there is no sufficient data about their toxicity to human health. This study was conducted to determine the water quality of ground water which is used for drinking in the study area. Water samples from ten groundwater wells were obtained in three different dates of the year (November 2012, March 2013, and April 2013). Three water samples were obtained from each well for each sampling date; so a total of 90 water samples were collected from the ten wells. The results obtained from this study suggest a possible risk to the population of the study area given the high concentration of some metals that have no maximum allowed concentration, and the fact that for many people in the study area, ground water is a main source of their water supply.

Keywords

Rare Metals; Rare Earth Elements; WHO Limits; ICP/MS; Ground Water; West Bank

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	EU (European Union) Directive 98/83/EC on the Quality of Water intended for Human Consumption. OJ, L330, December 1998.
[2]	D. Banks, A. K. Midtgard, G. Morland, C. Reimann, T. Strand, K. Bjorvatn and U. Siewers, “Is Pure Groundwater Safe to Drink? Natural ‘Contamination’ of Groundwater in Norway,” Geology Today, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1998, pp. 104-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2451.1998.014003104.x
[3]	B. T. Hart and T. Hines, “Trace Elements in Rivers,” In: B. Salbu and E. Steinnes, Eds., Trace Elements in Natural Waters, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1995, pp. 203-221.
[4]	C. Reimann, G. E. M. Hall, U. Siewers, K. Bjorvatn, G. Morland, H. Skarphagen and T. Strand, “Radon, Fluoride and 62 Elements as Determined by ICP-MS in 145 Norwegian Hard Rock Groundwater Samples,” Science Total Environment, Vol. 192, No. 1, 1996, pp. 1-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(96)05272-2
[5]	C. Reimann, U. Siwers, H. Skarphagen and D. Banks “Influence of Filtration on Concentrations of 62 Elements Analysed on Crystalline Bedrock Groundwater by ICPMS,” Science Total Environment, Vol. 234, No. 1-3, 1999, pp. 155-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00165-5
[6]	S. Hesske, A. Parriaux and M. Bensimon, “Geochemistry of Spring Waters in Molasse Aquifers: Typical Mineral Trace Elements,” Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae, Vol. 90, No. 1, 1997, pp. 151-171.
[7]	A. Misund, B. Frengstad, U. Siewers and C. Reimann, “Natural Variation of 66 Elements in European Mineral Waters,” Science Total Environment, Vol. 243, No. 244, 1999, pp. 21-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00307-1
[8]	I. Kim and G. Kim, “Large Fluxes of Rare Earth Elements through Submarine Groundwater Discharge (SGD) from a Volcanic Island, Jeju, Korea,” Marine Chemistry, Vol. 127, No. 1-4, 2011, pp. 12-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2011.07.006
[9]	R. P. Janssen and W. Verweij, “Geochemistry of Some Rare Earth Elements in Groundwater, Vierlingsbeek, The Netherlands,” Water Research, Vol. 37, No. 6, 2003, pp. 1320-1350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00492-X
[10]	G. G. Gruau, A. Dia, G. Olivie-Lauquet, M. Davranche and G. Pinay, “Controls on the Distribution of Rare Earth Elements in Shallow Groundwaters,” Water Research, Vol. 38, No. 16, 2004, pp. 3576-3586. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.04.056
[11]	M. A. Rasheed, B. A. Radha, P. L. Srinivasa Rao, M. Lakshmi, J. Bala Chennaiah and A. M. Dayal, “Evaluation of Potable Groundwater Quality in Some Villages of Adilabad in Andhra Pradesh, India,” Journal of Environmental Biolog, Vol. 33, 2012, pp. 689-693.
[12]	B. Frengstad, A. K. Midtgard, D. Banks, J. R. Krog and U. Siewers, “The Chemistry of Norwegian Groundwaters. III. The Distribution of Trace Elements in 476 Crystalline Bedrock Groundwaters as Analysed by ICP-MS Techniques,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 246, No. 1, 2000, pp. 21-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00413-1
[13]	C. Reimanna, K. Bjorvatnb, B. Frengstada, Z. Melakuc, R. Tekle-Haimanotc and U. Siewersd, “Drinking Water Quality in the Ethiopian Section of the East African Rift Valley I—Data and Health Aspects,” The Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 311, No. 1-3, 2003, pp. 65-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00137-2
[14]	“Environmental Profile for the West Bank, Volume 3: Hebron District,” Applied Research Institute, Jerusalem, 1995.
[15]	A. Abed and S. Wishahi, “Geology of Palestine: The West Bank and Gaza Strip. Palestine,” Palestine Hydrology Group, 1999.
[16]	F. M. Anayah and M. N. Almasri, “Trends and Occurrences of Nitrate in the Groundwater of the West Bank, Palestine,” Applied Geography, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2009, pp. 588-601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.01.004
[17]	PHG, “Water For Life,” Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Monitoring Program (WaSH MP), 2007/2008.
[18]	WHO, “Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Addendum to Vol. 1. Recommendations,” 2nd Edition, World Health Organisation, Geneva, 1998, pp. 10-11.
[19]	OMEE, “Monitoring Data for Uranium—1990-1995. Toronto, Ontario,” Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, Ontario Drinking Water Surveillance Program, 1996.
[20]	P. Kurttio, A. Auvinen, L. Salonen, H. Saha, J. Pekkanen, I. Makelainen, S. B. Vaisanen, I. M. Penttila and H. Komulainen, “Renal Effects of Uranium in Drinking Water,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 110, No. 4, 2002, pp. 337-342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.02110337
[21]	A. C. Hakonson-Hayes, P. R. Fresquez and F. W. Whicker, “Assessing Potential Risks from Exposure to Natural Uranium in Well Water,” Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, Vol. 59, No. 1, 2002, pp. 29-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0265-931X(01)00034-0
[22]	J. Fitzgerald, D. Cunliffe, S. Rainow, S. Dodds, S. Hostetler and G. Jacobson, “Groundwater Quality and Environmental Health Implications, Anangu Pitjantjatjara Lands, South Australia. Canberra,” Bureau of Rural Sciences, 2000.
[23]	WHO, WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/118/Rev/1, Background Document for Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 2012.
[24]	S. Hirano and K. T. Suzuki, “Exposure, Metabolism, and Toxicity of Rare Earths and Related Compounds,” Environ Health Perspective, Vol. 104, No. 1, 1996, pp. 85-95.
[25]	P. L. Smedley and D. G. Kinniburgh, “A Review of the Source, Behavior and Distribution of Arsenic in Natural Waters,” Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 17, No. 5, 2002, pp. 517-568. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(02)00018-5
[26]	WHO, “Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality,” World Health Organisation, Geneva, 1993.
[27]	US EPA, “Consumer Factsheet on: Nitrates/Nitrites,” 2003. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwh/c-ioc/nitrates.html
[28]	WHO, “Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality,” 3rd Edition, Vol. 1, Recommendations, Geneva, 2004.
[29]	European Union, “Council Directive 98y83yEC of 3 November 1998 on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption,” Official Journal of the European Community, Vol. L330, 1998, pp. y32-y54.
[30]	BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards), “Specification for Drinking Water, Indian Standard (IS: 10500),” New Delhi, 1993.
[31]	T. H. Jaing, I. H. Hung, H. T. Chung, C. H. Lai, W. M. Liu and K. W. Chang, “Acute Hypermagnesemia: A Rare Complication of Antacid Administration after Bone Marrow Transplantation,” Clinica Chimica Acta, Vol. 326, No. 1-2, 2002, pp. 201-203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0009-8981(02)00308-X
[32]	WHO, “Calcium and Magnesium in Drinking-Water: Public Health Significance,” Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, Geneva, 2009.
[33]	W. M. Edmunds and P. L. Smedley, “Groundwater Geochemistry and Health. Overview,” In: J. D. Appleton, R. Fuge and J. G. H. Mc. Call, Eds., Enviromental Geochemistry and Health with Special Reference to Developing Countries, Geological Society, Special Publication, Vol. 113, 1996, pp. 91-105.
[34]	US Environmental Protection Agency, “Strontium,” 2012. http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/strontium.html
[35]	J. L. Seifter, “Potassium Disorders,” In: L. Goldman, D. Ausiello and C. Medi, Eds., Cecil Medicine, 23rd Edition, Chapter 118, Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2007.
[36]	WHO, “Potassium in Drinking Water: Background Document for Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality,” Geneva, 2009.
[37]	WHO, “Barium in Drinking-Water Background Document for Development of WHO, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality,” Geneva, 2004.