Clinical critics in the management of diabetes mellitus

Abstract

There is a global epidemic of diabetes with its prevalence expected to increase from 5.1% in 2003 to 6.3% in 2025. This increase in diabetes is occurring in all nations, however, developing nations are particularly at risk. It spares no group and affects men, women, the elderly, young and people from very racial and socio-economic background. Nevertheless, certain ethnic groups including Asians are affected more than Caucasians. Large randomized clinical trials have shown that improvement in glycaemic control, together with management of diabetes-related risk factors like blood pressure and lipid control significantly reduce the micro and macro complications in individuals with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Patient education plays a crucial role in the prevention of diabetic fool problems. In Geneva, the rate of lower limb amputations was reduced by almost 75% after an educational intervention. People with diabetes must acquire the knowledge and skills through education to provide daily self-care in diabetes management which involves maintenance of healthy living, recognition and management of diabetes problems when they arise and taking preventive measures. Some factors include patients’ biomedical variables, the psychosocial environment, the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs of patients themselves, home careers and health care providers, healthcare systems’ accessibility and availability and even the national political context may influence these self-care behaviors.

Share and Cite:

Gillani, S. , Sulaiman, S. , Sundram, S. , Victor, S. and Abdullah, A. (2012) Clinical critics in the management of diabetes mellitus. Health, 4, 537-548. doi: 10.4236/health.2012.48085.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] World Health Organization Definition (1999) diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. World Health Organization, Geneva.
[2] Fried, L. (2000) Epidemiology of aging. Epidemiology Reviews, 22, 95-106. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a018031
[3] International Diabetes Federation (2008) Diabetes atlasprevalence. http://www.eatlas.idf.org/Prevalence
[4] Wild, S., Roglic, G., Green, A., Sicree, R. and King, H. (2004) Global prevalence of diabetes estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care, 27, 1047-1063. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.5.1047
[5] Yoon, K.-H., Lee, J.-H., Kim, J.-W., Cho, J.-H., Choi, Y.-H., Ko, S.-H., et al. (2006) Epidemic obesity and type 2 diabetes in Asia. Lancet, 368, 1681-1688. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69703-1
[6] Cockram, C. (2000) The epidemiology of diabetes mellitus in the Asia-Pacific region. Hong Kong Medical Journal, 6, 43-52.
[7] Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 977-986. doi:10.1056/NEJM199309303291401
[8] United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group (1998) Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. British Medical Journal, 317, 703-713. doi:10.1136/bmj.317.7160.703
[9] Ohkubo, Y., Kishikawa, H., Araki, E., Myata, T., Isamu, S., Motoyoshi, S., et al. (1995) Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized prospective 6-year study. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 28, 103-117. doi:10.1016/0168-8227(95)01064-K
[10] Assal, J.P. and Lacroix, A. (1990) Educating the patient to manage his disease: The example of diabetes mellitus. Journal of Human Hypertension, 1, 13-20.
[11] Viswanathan, V. (2007) The diabetic foot: Perspectives from Chennai, South India. Lower Extremity Wounds, 6, 34-36. doi:10.1177/1534734606297987
[12] Kirkman, M.S., McCarren, M., Shah, J., Duckworth, W. and Abraira, C. (2006) The VADT study group. The association between metabolic control and prevalent macrovascular disease in Type 2 diabetes: The VA Cooperative study in diabetes. Journal of Diabetes and its Complications, 20, 75-80. doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2005.06.013
[13] The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group (2008) Effect of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine, 358, 2545-2559. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0802743
[14] The Advance Collaborative Group (2008) Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358, 2560-2752. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0802987
[15] United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group (1998) Intensive blood glucose control with sulphonylurease or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet, 352, 837-853. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07019-6
[16] AACE Diabetes Mellitus Clinical Practice Guidelines Task Force (2007) American association of clinical endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the management of diabetes mellitus. Endocrine Practice, 13, 1-108.
[17] Adler, A.I., Stratton, I.M., Neil, H.A.W., Yudkin, J.S., Mathews, D.R., Cull, C.A., et al. (2000) Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): Prospective observational study. British Medical Journal, 321, 412-419. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7258.412
[18] Colhoun, H., Betterodge, D., Durrington, P., Hitman, G., Nell, H.A., Livngstone, S., et al. (2004) Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atrovastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atrovastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): Multicenter randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet, 364, 685-694. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16895-5
[19] Pyorala, K., Pedersen, T., Kjekshus, J., Faergeman, O., Olsson, A. and Thorgeirsson, G. (1997) Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary heart disease: a subgroup analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Diabetes Care, 20, 614-620. doi:10.2337/diacare.20.4.614
[20] Grant, R.W., Pirraglio, P.A., Megis, J.B. and Singer, D.E. (2004) Trends in complexity of diabetes care in the United States from 1991 to 2000. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 1134-1139. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.10.1134
[21] Anderson, R., Funnell, M., Butler, P., Arnold, M., Fitzgerald, J. and Feate, C. (1995) Patient empowerment results of a randomized controlled tria. Diabetes Care, 18, 943-949. doi:10.2337/diacare.18.7.943
[22] Lerman, I. (2005) Adherence to treatment. The key for avoiding long-term complications of diabetes. Archives of Medical Research, 36, 300-306. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2004.12.001
[23] Helme, D.W. and Harrington, N.G. (2004) Patient accounts for noncompliance with diabetes self-care regimens and physician compliance-gaining response. Patient Education and Counseling, 55, 281-292. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2003.10.004
[24] Nelson, K., Reiber, G. and Boyko, E. (2002) Diet and exercise among adults with type 2 diabetes: Findings from the third national health and nutritional examination survey (NHANES III). Diabetes Care, 25, 1722-1728. doi:10.2337/diacare.25.10.1722
[25] Travis T. (1997) Patient perceptions of factors that affect adherence to dietary regimens for diabetes mellitus. The Diabete’s Educator, 23, 152-156. doi:10.1177/014572179702300205
[26] Hays, L. and Clark, D. (1999) Correlates of physical activity in a sample of older adults with type diabetes. Diabetes Care, 22, 706-712. doi:10.2337/diacare.22.5.706
[27] Harris, M. (2001) Frequency of blood glucose monitoring in relation to glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 24, 979-982. doi:10.2337/diacare.24.6.979
[28] Evans, J., Newton, R., Ruta, D., MacDonald, T., Stevenson, R. and Morris, A. (1999) Frequency of blood monitoring in relation to glycemic control: Observational study diabetes database. British Medical Journal, 319, 83-86. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7202.83
[29] Allen, N.A. (2003) The history of diabetes nursing, 19141936. The Diabetes Educator, 29, 976-989. doi:10.1177/014572170302900608
[30] Brown, S. (1988) Effects of education interventions in diabetes care: A meta analysis of findings. Nursing Research, 37, 223-230. doi:10.1097/00006199-198807000-00010
[31] Brown, S. (1992) Meta analysis of diabetes patient education research: Variations in intervention effects across studies. Research in Nursing and Health, 15, 409-419. doi:10.1002/nur.4770150603
[32] Austalian Diabetes Educators Association (2008) New diabetes self-care resources for consumers and diabetic educators. Australian Diabetes Educators, 11, 6.
[33] Funnell, M.M., Brown, T.L., Childs, B.P., Haas, K.B., Hosey, G.M., Fensen, B., et al. (2008) National standards for diabetes self-management education. Diabetes Care, 31, S97-S104. doi:10.2337/dc08-S097
[34] Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 977-986. doi:10.1056/NEJM199309303291401
[35] United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group (1998) Intensive blood glucose control with sulphonylurease or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet, 352, 837-853. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07019-6
[36] Anderson, R., Funnell, M., Butler, P., Arnold, M., Fitzgerald, J. and Feate, C. (1995) Patient empowerment results of a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care, 18, 943-949. doi:10.2337/diacare.18.7.943
[37] Jacobson, A. (1996) Current concepts: The psychological care of patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 1249-1254. doi:10.1056/NEJM199605093341907
[38] Toljamo, M. and Hentinen, M. (2001) Adherence to selfcare and glycaemic control among people with insulindependent diabetes mellitus. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 34, 780-786. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01808.x
[39] Russell, L.B., Suh, D.-C. and Safford, M.M. (2005) Time requirements for diabetes self-management: Too much for many? The Journal of Family Practice, 54, 52-56.
[40] Wen, L.K., Parchman, M.L. and Shepherd, M.D. (2004) Family support and diet barriers among older Hispanic adults with type 2 diabetes. Family Medicine, 36, 423-430.
[41] Safford, M.M., Russell, L.B., Suh, D.-C., Roman, S. and Pogach, L. (2005) How much time do patients with diabetes spend on self-care? Journal of American Board Family Practice, 18, 262-270. doi:10.3122/jabfm.18.4.262
[42] Paterson, B.L., Russell, C. and Throne, S. (2002) Critical analysis of everyday self-care decision making in chronic illness. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 35, 335-341. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01850.x
[43] Zhang, J. and Verhoel, M.J. (2002) Illness management strategies among Chinese immigrants living with arthritis. Social Science & Medicine, 55, 1795-1802. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00311-2
[44] Hunt, J., Pugh, J. and Valenzuela, M. (1998) How patients adapt diabetes self-care recommendations in everyday life. The Journal of Family Practice, 46, 207-215.
[45] Blaiss, M.S. (2004) Asthma disease management: A critical analysis. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 95, S10-S16. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61004-6
[46] Bodenheimer, T., Lorig, K., Homan, H. and Grumbach, K. (2002) Patient self-management of chronic disease in primary care. Journal of America Medical Association, 288, 2469-2475. doi:10.1001/jama.288.19.2469
[47] Ni, H., Nauman, D., Donna, B., Wise, K., Crispell, K. and Hershberger, R.E. (2006) Factors influencing knowledge of and adhehrence to self-care among patients with heart failure. Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 1613-1619. doi:10.1001/archinte.159.14.1613
[48] Hawthorne, K. and Tomlinson, S. (1999) Pakistani Moslems with type 2 diabetes mellitus: effect of gender, literacy skills, know diabetic complications and place of care on diabetic knowledge, reported self-monitoring management and glycaemic control. Diabetic Medicine, 16, 591-597. doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.1999.00102.x
[49] Hawthorne, K. (2001) Effect of culturally appropriate health education on glycaemic control and knowledge of diabetes in British Pakistani women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Health Education Research, 16, 373-381. doi:10.1093/her/16.3.373
[50] Hartz, A., Kent, S., James, P., Xu, Y.H., Kelly, M. and Daly, J. (2006) Factors that influence improvement for patients with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 74, 227-232. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2006.03.023
[51] Taylor, M., Frier, B.M., Gold, A. and Deary, I. (2003) Psychological factors and diabetes related outcomes following diagnosis of Type 1 diabetes in adults: The Edinburgh prospective diabetes study. Diabetic Medicine, 20, 135-146. doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.2003.00887.x
[52] Tu, K.S. and Gay, J.T. (1993) Diabetes self-care knowledge, behaviors and metabolic control of older adults— The effect of a posteducational follow-up program. The Diabetes Educator, 19, 25-30.
[53] Jacobson, A., Alder, A., Wolfsdorf, J., Anderson, B. and Derby, L. (1990) Psychological characteristics of adults with IDDM. Comparison of patients in poor and good glycaemic control. Diabetes Care, 13, 375-381. doi:10.2337/diacare.13.4.375
[54] Lerman, I., Lazano, L., Villa, A.R., Hermandez-Jimmenez, S., Weinger, K., Caballero, A.E., et al. (2004) Psyhological factors associated with poor diabetes selfmanagement in a specialized center in Mexico City. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 58, 566-570. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2004.09.003
[55] Delahanty, L. and Hiford, B. (1993) The role of diet behaviors in achieving improved glycaemic control in intensively treated patient in the diabetes control and complications trials. Diabetes Care, 16, 1453-1458. doi:10.2337/diacare.16.11.1453
[56] Franz, M., Monk, A., Barry, B., McClain, K., Weaver, T., Cooper, N., et al. (1995) Effectiveness of medical nutrition therapy provided by dieticians in the management of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 95, 1009-1017. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00276-6
[57] Pastors, J., Warshaw, H., Daly, A., Franz, M. and Kulkarni, K. (2002) The evidence for the effectiveness of medical nutritional therapy in diabetes management. Diabetes Care, 25, 608-613. doi:10.2337/diacare.25.3.608
[58] Murata, G., Shah, J., Duckworth, W., Wendel, C., Mohler, M. and Hoffman, R. (2004) Food frequency questionnaire results correlate with metabolic control in insulin-related veterans with type 2 diabetes: The diabetes outcomes in Veterans study. Journal of American Dietetic Association, 12, 1816-1826. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2004.09.026
[59] McLean, H. (1991) Patterns of diet related self-care in diabetes. Social Science and Medicine, 32, 689-696. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(91)90148-6
[60] Brunner, E., White, I., Thorogood, M., Bristow, A., Curle, D. and Marmot, M. (1997) Can dietary interventions change diet and cardiovascular risk factors? A meta analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 1415-1422. doi:10.2105/AJPH.87.9.1415
[61] Cernea, S., Hancu, N. and Raz, I. (2003) Diet and coronary heart disease in diabetes. Acta Diabetologia, 40, S389-S400. doi:10.1007/s00592-003-0125-8
[62] Klein, S., Sheard, N.F., Pi-Sunyer, X., Daly, A., WylieRosett, J., Kulkarni, K., et al. (2004) Weight management through lifestyle modification for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes: Rationale and strategies. Diabetes Care, 27, 2067-2073. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.8.2067
[63] Moore, H., Summerbell, C.D., Hooper, L., Nield, L., Cruickshank, K., Vyas, A., et al. (2004) Dietary advice for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD004097.
[64] Ruggiero, L., Glassgow, R., Dryfoos, J., Rossi, J., Prochaska, J., Orleans, C., et al. (1997) Diabetes self-management: Self-reported recommendations and patterns in a large population. Diabetes Care, 20, 568-576. doi:10.2337/diacare.20.4.568
[65] Chang, H.Y., Chious, C.J., Lin, M.C., Lin, S.H. and Tai, T.Y. (2005) A population study of the self-care behaviours and their associated factors of diabetes in Taiwan: Results from the 2001 national health interview survey in Taiwan. Preventive Medicine, 40, 344-348. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.06.012
[66] Cox, R., Carpenter, J., Bruce, F., Poole, K. and Gaylord, C. (2004) Characteristics of low-income African-American and Caucasian adults that are important in self-management of type 2 diabetes. Journal of Community Health, 29, 155-170. doi:10.1023/B:JOHE.0000016719.89848.b1
[67] Meeto, D. (2004) Dietry pattern of self-care among Asian and Caucasians diabetic patients. British Journal of Nursing, 13, 1074-1078.
[68] Nelson, K., Reiber, G. and Boyko, E. (2002) Diet and exercise among adults with type 2 diabetes: Findings from the third national health and nutritional examination survey (NHANES III). Diabetes Care, 25, 1722-1728. doi:10.2337/diacare.25.10.1722
[69] Nthangeni, G., Steyn, N.P., Alberts, M., Steyn, K., Levitt, N.S., Laubscher, R., et al. (2002) Dietry intake and barriers to dietry compliance in black type 2 diabetic patients attending primary healthcare services. Public Health Nutrition, 5, 329-338. doi:10.1079/PHN2002256
[70] Toobert, S., Hampson, S. and Glasgow, R. (2000) The summary of diabetes self-care activities measure: Results from 7 studies and a revised scale. Diabetes Care, 23, 943-950. doi:10.2337/diacare.23.7.943
[71] Savoca, M.R., Miller, C.K. and Ludwig, D.A. (2004) Food habits are related to glycaemic control among people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 104, 560-566. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2004.01.013
[72] Albarran, N.B., Balleseros, M.N., Morales, G.G. and Ortega, M.I. (2006) Dietary behavior and type 2 diabetes care. Patient Education and Counseling, 61, 191-199. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2005.03.008
[73] Lawton, J., Ahmad, N., Hallowell, N., Hanna, K. and Douglas, M. (2005) Perceptions and experience of taking oral hypoglycemic agents among people of Pakistani and Indian origin: Qualitative study. British Medical Journal, 330, 1247-1251. doi:10.1136/bmj.38460.642789.E0
[74] Vijen, S., Stuart, N., Fitzgerald, J., Ronis, D., Hayward, R. and Slater, S. (2004) Barriers to following dietary recommendation in type 2 diabetes. Diabetic Medicine, 22, 32-38. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2004.01342.x
[75] Whittemore, R. (2000) Strategies to facilitate lifestyle change associated with diabetes mellitus. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 32, 225-232. doi:10.1111/j.1547-5069.2000.00225.x
[76] Wen, L., Shepherd, M. and Parchaman, M. (2004) Family support, diet and exercise among older Mexican Americans with type 2 diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 30, 980-993. doi:10.1177/014572170403000619
[77] Savoca, M., Miller, C. and Quandt, S. (2004) Profiles of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The extremes of glycaemic control. Social Science and Medicine, 58, 26552666. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.09.031
[78] Wolever, T.M.S., Hamad, S., Chiasson, J.-L., Josse, R.G., Leiter, L.A., Rodger, W., et al. (1999) Day-to-day consistency in amount and source of carbohydrate intake associated with improved blood glucose control in type 1 diabetes. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 18, 242-247.
[79] Whittemore, R., Melkus, G. and Grey, M. (2005) Metabolic control, self-management and psychosocial adjustment in women with type 2 diabetes. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 14, 195-199. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2004.00937.x
[80] Sherman, A.M., Bowen, D.J., Vitolins, M., Sevick, M.A. and Ockene, J.K. (2000) Dietary adherence: Characteristics and interventions. Controlled Clinical Trial, 21, 206S-211S. doi:10.1016/S0197-2456(00)00080-5
[81] Vallis, T. (1998) Understanding diabetes non-adherence: Psychosocial factors associated with poor self-care. Canadian Journal of Diabetes Care, 22, 13-21.
[82] Peyrot, M., Rubint, R., Lauritzen, T., Snoek, F., Mathews, D., Skovlund, S., et al. (2005) Psychosocial problems and barriers to improved diabetes management: Results of the Cross-sectional Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes and Needs (DAWN) study. Diabetic Medicine, 22, 1379-1385. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2005.01644.x
[83] Jerant, A., von Friederichs-Fitzwater, M. and Moore, M. (2005) Pateints percieved barriers to active self-management of chronic conditions. Patient Education Counseling, 57, 300-307. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2004.08.004
[84] Funnell, M.M., Hunt, C., Kulkarni, K., Rubin, R.R. and Yorborough, P.C. (1998) A core curriculum for diabetes education. 3rd Edition, American Association Diabetes Educators, Chicago
[85] Agurus-Collins, T., Kumanyika, S., Ten Have, T. and Adams Campbell, L. (1997) A randomized control trial of weight reduction and exercise for diabetes maanagment in older African-American subjects. Diabetes Care, 20, 1503-1511. doi:10.2337/diacare.20.10.1503
[86] Boule, N., Haddad, E., Kenny, G., Wells, G. and Sigal, R. (2001) Effects of exercise on glycaemic control and body mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta analysis of xontrolled clinical trials. Journal of American Medical Association, 286, 1218-1227. doi:10.1001/jama.286.10.1218
[87] Hu, G., Jousilahti, P., Barengo, N.C., Qiag, Q., Lakka, T.A. and Tuomilehto, J. (2005) Physical activity, cardiovascular risk factors, and mortality among Finnish adults with diabetes. Dianbetes Care, 28, 799-803. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.4.799
[88] Morey, M.C., Pieper, C.F., Crowley, G.M., Sullivan, R.J. Jr. and Publisi, C.M. (2002) Exercise adherence and 10 year-mortality in chronically ill older adults. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 50, 1929-1933. doi:10.1046/j.1532-5415.2002.50602.x
[89] Nothwehr, F. and Stump, T. (2000) Health promoting behaviors among adults with type 2 diabetes: Findings from the health and retirement study. Preventive Medicine, 30, 407-414. doi:10.1006/pmed.2000.0658
[90] Dutton, G.R., Johnson, J., Whitehead, D., Bodenlos, J.S. and Brantely, P. (2005) Barriers to physical activity among predominantly low-incomce African-American patients with Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 28, 1209-1210. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.5.1209
[91] Dye, C., Haley-Zitlin, V. and Willoughly, D. (2003) Insights from older adults with type 2 diabetes: Making dietary and exercise changes. The Diabetes Educator, 29, 116-127. doi:10.1177/014572170302900116
[92] Swift, C., Armstrong, J., Berman, K., Cambell, R. and Pond-Smith, D. (1995) Attitudes and beliefs about exercise among persons with non-insulin dependent diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 21, 523-540. doi:10.1177/014572179502100607
[93] Hays, L. and Clark, D. (1999) Correlates of physical activity in a sample of older adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 22, 706-712. doi:10.2337/diacare.22.5.706
[94] Shin, Y., Yun, S., Pender, N. and Jang, H. (2005) Test of the health promotion model as a casual model of commitment to a plan for exercise among Korean Adults with chronic disease. Research in Nursing & Health, 28, 117-125. doi:10.1002/nur.20060
[95] Plotnikoff, R.C., Brez, S. and Hotz, S.B. (2000) Exercise behavior in a community sample with diabetes: Understanding the determinants of exercise behavioral change. The Diabetes Educator, 26, 450-459. doi:10.1177/014572170002600312
[96] Aljasem, L.I., Peyrot, M., Wissow, L. and Rubin, R.R. (2001) The impact of barriers and self-efficacy on self care behaviors in type 2 diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 27, 393-404. doi:10.1177/014572170102700309
[97] Jorgensen, W., Polivka, B. and Lennie, T. (2002) Perceived adherence to prescribed or recommended standards of care among adults with diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 28, 989-998. doi:10.1177/014572170202800613
[98] Thomas, N., Alder, E. and Lesse, G. (2004) Barriers to physical activity in patients with diabetes. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 80, 287-291. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2003.010553
[99] Lim, K. and Taylor, L. (2005) Factors associated with physical activity among older people—A population based study. Preventive Medicine, 40, 33-40. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.04.046
[100] Allen, N. (2004) Cognitive theory in diabetes exercise research: An integrative literature review. The Diabetics Educator, 30, 805-819. doi:10.1177/014572170403000516
[101] Estacio, R.O., Wolfel, E.E., Regensteiner, J.G., Ferrers, B., Javramel, E.P., Sabage, S., et al. (1996) Effects of risk factors on exercise capacity in NIDDM. Diabetes, 45, 79-85. doi:10.2337/diabetes.45.1.79
[102] Fischbachler, C., Hunt, S. and Alexander, L. (2004) How physically active are South Asians in the United Kingdom? A literature review. Journal of Public Health, 26, 250258. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdh158
[103] Kandula, N.R. and Lauderdale, D.S. (2005) Leisure time, non-leisure time and occupational physical activity in Asian Americans. Annals of Epidemiology, 15, 257-265. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2004.06.006
[104] Lawton, J., Ahmad, N., Hanna, L., Douglas, M. and Hallowell, N. (2005) “I can’t do any serious exercise”: Barriers to physical activity amongst people of Pakistani and Indian origin with type 2 diabetes. Health Education Research, 20, 1-12.
[105] Wooldridge, K., Wallston, K., Graber, A., Brown, A. and Davidson, P. (1992) The relationship between health beliefs, adherence and metabolic control of diabetes. Diabetes Education, 18, 495-500. doi:10.1177/014572179201800608
[106] Diehl, A., Bauer, R. and Sigarel, N. (1987) Correlates of medication compliance in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. South Medical Journal, 80, 332-335. doi:10.1097/00007611-198703000-00014
[107] Rhee, M.K., Slocum, W., Ziemer, D.C., Culler, S.D., Cook, C.B., El-Kebbi, I.M., et al. (2005) Patient adherence improves glycaemic control. The Diabetic Educator, 31, 240250. doi:10.1177/0145721705274927
[108] Balkrishnan, R. (2005) The importance of medication adherence in improving chronic-disease related outcomes: What we know and what we need to further know. Medical Care, 43, 517-520. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000166617.68751.5f
[109] Rubin, R.R. (2005) Adherence to pharmacologic therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The American Journal of Medicine, 118, 275-345. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.04.012
[110] Blaum, C., Velve, K., Hiss, R. and Halter, J. (1997) Characteristics related to poor glycaemic control in NIDDM patients in community practice. Diabetes Care, 20, 7-11. doi:10.2337/diacare.20.1.7
[111] Mojtabal, R. and Olfson, M. (2003) Medication costs, adherence and health outcomes among medicare beneficiaries. Health Affairs, 23, 220-229. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.22.4.220
[112] Lin, E.H., Katon, W.J., Von Korff, M., Rutter, C., Simon, G.E., Oliver, M., et al. (2004) Relationship of depression and diabetes self-care, medication adherence and preventive care. Diabetes Care, 27, 2154-2160. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.9.2154
[113] Piette, J.D., Heisler, M. and Wagner, T.H. (2006) Medication characteristics beyond cost alone influence decisions to underused pharmacotherapy in response to financial pressure. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 59, 739-746. doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2005.11.023
[114] Haynes, R.B., McDonald, H.P., Garg, A. and Montague, P. (2002) Interventions for helping patients to follow prescriptions for medication (review). Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews, 2, CD000011.
[115] Bartel, D. (2004) Adherence to oral therapy for type 2 diabetes, opportunities for enhancing glycaemic control. Journal of the American Academy of Nursing Practitioners, 16, 8-16.
[116] Boccuzzi, S., Wogen, J., Fox, J., Sung, J., Shah, A. and Kim, J. (2005) Utilization of oral hypoglycaemic agents in drug insured US population. Diabetes Care, 28, 78-83.
[117] Donnan, P., MacDonald, T. and Morris, A. (2002) Adherence to prescribed oral hypoglycaemic medication in population of patients with type 2 diabetes: A retrospective cohort study. Diabetic Medicine, 19, 279-284. doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.2002.00689.x
[118] Cramer, J. (2004) A systemic review of adherence with medication for diabetes. Diabetes Care, 27, 1218-1224. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.5.1218
[119] Pladvell, M., Williams, L., Potts, L., Dividne, G., Xi, H. and Lafata, J. (2004) Clinical outcomes and adherence to medications measured by claims data in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care, 27, 2800-2805. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.12.2800
[120] Hertz, R.P., Unger, A.N. and Lustik, M.B. (2005) Adherence with pharmacotherapy for type 2 diabetes: A retrospective cohort study of adults with employer sponsored health insurance. Clinical Therapeutics, 27, 1064-1073. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.07.009
[121] Piette, J.D., Heisler, M., Krein, S. and Kerr, E.A. (2005) The role of patient physician trust in moderating medication nonadherence due to cost pressures. Archives of Internal Medicine, 165, 1749-1755. doi:10.1001/archinte.165.15.1749
[122] Ciechanowski, P.S., Katon, W., Russo, J. and Walker, E. (2001) The patient provider relationship: Attachment theory and adherence to treatment in diabetes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 29-35. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.1.29
[123] Evans, J., Newton, R., Ruta, D., MacDonald, T., Stevenson, R. and Morris, A. (1999) Frequency of blood glucose monitoring in relation to glycaemic control: Observational study with diabetes database. British Medical Journal, 319, 83-86. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7202.83
[124] Karter, A.J., Ferrara, A., Darbinian, J.A., Ackerson, L.M. and Selby, J.V. (2001) Self monitoring of blood glucoselanguage and financial barriers in a managed care population with diabetes. Diabetes Care, 23, 477-483. doi:10.2337/diacare.23.4.477
[125] Nyomba, B., Berard, L. and Murphy, L. (2003) Facilitating access to glucometer reagents increase blood glucose self-monitoring frequency and improves glycaemic control: A prospective study in insulin treated diabetes patients. Diabetic Medicine, 21, 129-135. doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.2003.01070.x
[126] Harris, M. (2001) Frequency of blood glucose monitoring in relation glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 24, 979-982. doi:10.2337/diacare.24.6.979
[127] Oki, J., Flora, D. and Isley, W. (1997) Frequency and impact to SMBG on glycaemic control in patients with NIDDM in an urban teaching hospital clinic. The Diabetes Educator, 23, 419-424. doi:10.1177/014572179702300406
[128] Coster, S., Gulliford, M., Seed, P., Powriet, J. and Seaminathan. R. (2000) Self monitoring in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis. Diabetic Medicine, 17, 755-761. doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.2000.00390.x
[129] Franciosi, M., Pellegrini, F., De Beradis, G., Belfiglio, M., Cavaliere, D., Nardo, B.D., et al. (2001) The impact of blood glucose self-monitoring on metabolic control and quality of life in type 2 diabetic patients: An urgent need for better educational strategies. Diabetic Care, 24, 1871-1877. doi:10.2337/diacare.24.11.1870
[130] Ozmen, B. and Boyvada, S. (2003) The relationship between self-monitorong of blood glucose control and glycosylated haemoglobin in patients with type 2 diabetes with and without diabetic retinopathy. Journal of Diabetes and the Complication, 17, 128-134.
[131] Kibriya, M., Ali, L., Banik, N. and Khan, A. (1999) Home monitoring of blood glucose (HMBG) in type 2 diabetes mellitus in a developing country. Diabetes Research Clinical Practice, 46, 253-257. doi:10.1016/S0168-8227(99)00093-5
[132] Welschen, L.M., Bloemendal, E., Nijpels, G., Dekker, J., Heine, R.J., Stalman, W.A., et al. (2005) Self-monitoring of blood glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes who are not using insulin. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 18, CD005060.
[133] Sarol, J. Jr, Nicodemus, N. Jr, Tan, K. and Grave, M. (2005) Self-monitoring of blood glucose as part of mutlicomponent therapy among non-insulin requiring type 2: Meta-analysis (1996-2004). Current Medical Research and Opinion, 21, 173-183. doi:10.1185/030079904X20286
[134] Guerci, B., Drouin, P., Grange, V., Bougneres, P., Fontaine, P., Kerlan, V., et al. (2003) Self-monitoring of blood glucose significanlty improves metabolic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: The Auto-Surveillance Intervention active (ASIA) study. Diabetes & Metabolism, 29, 587-594. doi:10.1016/S1262-3636(07)70073-3
[135] Soumerai, S., Mah, C., Fang, Z., Adam, A., Barton, M., Fajtova, V., et al. (2004) Effects of health maintainance organization coverage of self-monitoring devices on diabetes self-care and glycaemic control. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 645-652. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.6.645
[136] Adam, A., Mah, C., Soumeri, S., Zhang, F., Barton, M. and Ross-Degnam, D. (2003) Barriers to self-monitoring of blood glucose among adults with diabetes in an HMO: A cross sectional study. BMJ Health Services Research, 3, 6-10. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-3-6
[137] Bjorsness, D.K., Krezowski, P.A., Harwell, T.S., McDowall, J.M., Butcher, M.K., Helgerson, S.D., et al. (2003) Self-monitoring blood glucose practices: Do patients know and act on their target? Diabetes Care, 26, 3353-3354. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.12.3353
[138] Storimans, M., Talsma, H., Kungel, O. and de Blaey, C. (2004) Dispensing glucose test materials in Dutch community pharmacies. Pharmacy World Science, 26, 52-55. doi:10.1023/B:PHAR.0000013475.75062.55
[139] Vincze, G., Barner, J. and Lopez, D. (2004) Factors associated with adherence to self-monitoring of blood glucose among persons with diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 30, 112-125. doi:10.1177/014572170403000119
[140] Mcgee, B., Stoll, J., Misra, M., Perlmuter, L. and Singh, S. (2002) Subsyndromal depression and self-monitoring of blood glucose. Diabetes, 51, A619-A620.
[141] Bowker, S., Mitchell, C., Majunmdar, S., Toth, E. and Johnson, J. (2004) Lack of insurance coverage for testing supplies is associated with poorer glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of the Canadian Medical Association, 17, 39-43. doi:10.1503/cmaj.1031830
[142] Zgibor, J. and Simmons, D. (2002) Barriers to blood glucose monitoring in a multiethenic community. Diabetes Care, 25, 1772-1777. doi:10.2337/diacare.25.10.1772

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.