Suggestions for a Teacher Training Program for Inclusive Education in a Japanese University

doi:10.4236/ce.2013.48074

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Creative Education

2013. Vol.4, No.8, 509-513

Published Online August 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2013.48074

Suggestions for a Teacher Training Program for Inclusive

Education in a Japanese University

Junichi Takahashi

Department of Developmental Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health,

National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan

Email: j_taka@ncnp.go.jp

Received June 3rd, 2013; revised July 3rd, 2013; accepted July 10th, 2013

tribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

Inclusive education has been recently proposed in primary and secondary educations in many countries.

Children who need special education support should be educated together with typically developing chil-

dren in general classes. Although many studies have examined the effectiveness of inclusive education,

researchers have pointed out that some general education teachers experience problems in their relation-

ships with children who have disabilities such as developmental disorders and intellectual disabilities. In

this paper, we review teacher training programs in a Japanese university and offer suggestions to enhance

teachers’ relationships with disabled children. In our discussion, we focused on adult attachment theory,

which is an affective connection and interactions between self and others. First, we reviewed the impor-

tance of teachers’ relationships with disabled children. Second, we reviewed attachment theories with re-

spect to the quality of teacher-child relationships, and lastly, we proposed that adult attachment theory is a

mediator in the quality of teacher-child relationships. We proposed a direction for the application of these

conceptual assumptions to the teacher-training program for inclusive education in a Japanese university.

Keywords: Inclusive Education; Developmental Disorders; Intellectual Disability; Adult Attachment

Theory; Teacher-Child Relationships

Introduction

In Japan, 0.6% (60,302) of all children in primary and sec-

ondary schools attended special support schools and 1.2%

(124,166) of all children attended special support classes in ge-

neral schools in 2008 (MEXT: Ministry of Education, Culture,

Sports, Science, and Technology). The educational system re-

quiring compulsory education for children needing special

education began in 1979. Thereafter, with all disabled children

receiving compulsory education, the number of children who

attend special support schools has continued to increase. This

educational system would separate children with disabilities

from regular schools. A portion of the School Education Act

was revised in 2007 with regard to the educational system’s

support for children with special needs. The education for chil-

dren with disabilities extended to the community in addition to

services received at special support schools. These changes

have been supported by efforts toward normalization and inclu-

sive education.

Internationally, inclusive education is increasingly seen more

broadly as a reform of educational systems (UNESCO, 2001).

The efforts of government, school boards, principals, and tea-

chers are needed to facilitate inclusive education. Specifically,

teachers should be willing to acquire the knowledge and skills

necessary to adapt their teaching to all children, including those

with and without a disability (Pivik, McComas, & Laflamme,

2002). However, some studies have pointed out problems with

inclusive education. The instruction methods of general edu-

cation teachers require adaptation for children with disabilities

(i.e., those with intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder,

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, and learning

disability), because teachers must conduct measurements of

children’s behavior and their symptoms and develop interven-

tion plans based on these symptoms (Koegel, Matos-Freden,

Lang, & Koegel, 2012). In this situation, teachers are challeng-

ed to establish positive relationships with children with disabi-

lities. However, children with disabilities, such as autism spec-

trum disorder have difficulty with social interaction and are un-

interested in interacting with others (Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision;

DSM-IV-TR, 2000). Since general education teachers have often

had less training in techniques for working with disabled chil-

dren, they have problems in these relationships. Although some

previous studies have examined the effectiveness of teachers’

relationships with disabled children, the investigations have

been limited (Robertson, Chamberlain, & Kasari, 2003). In par-

ticular, the findings of few studies on teachers’ relationships

with disabled children have been applied in university teacher-

training programs (Koegel et al., 2012). In order to contribute

to solutions to this problem, we reviewed the previous studies

that examined teachers’ relationships with children with dis-

abilities. We focused on adult attachment theory (i.e., teachers’

attachment style) in teacher-child relationships and provided

directions for the application of knowledge about teachers’ at-

tachment styles to the teacher-training programs in a Japanese

university.

J. TAKAHASHI

Teacher-Child Relationships Affect Children’s

School Adjustment

Teachers’ Relationships with Typically

Developmental Children

Positive teacher-child relationships in the early grades pre-

dict school success and adjustment of children in later grades

(e.g., Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004). To

examine the quality of teacher-child relationships, researchers

frequently have adopted the questionnaire method by using the

STRS (Student-Teacher Relationship Scale: Pianta, 2001). This

questionnaire assesses the affective quality of caregiving rela-

tionships in primary and secondary education and is used to

determine teachers’ perceptions of their relationships with indi-

vidual children. Previous studies have examined teacher-child

relationships in primary and secondary schools (Baker, 1998,

2006; Birch & Ladd, 1997, 1998; Howes & Ritchie, 1999;

Hughes, Cavell, & Jackson, 1999; Pianta, 1999, 2001). These

studies consistently indicated that close relationships with tea-

chers are associated with positive school adjustment. Baker

(2006) examined the influence of teacher-child relationships on

school adjustment with 1310 elementary school students and

found that the quality of teacher-child relationships was associ-

ated with academic indicators of school adjustment and success

in formative elementary-school-aged and older students. Hughes

et al. (1999) examined the influence of teacher-child relation-

ship quality on children’s aggression levels across 3 academic

years. Behavioral descriptions of aggression included “picks on

other children,” “starts fig hts,” “teases,” “tells lies about others,”

and “excludes others from their group.” Results showed that the

teacher-child relationship could predict the developmental tra-

jectory of aggressive children. The quality of the teacher-child

relationship in the first academic year predicted teachers’ rat-

ings of aggression the next year. Less aggression was associ-

ated with positive teacher-child relationships in the next aca-

demic year.

Teachers’ Relationships with Disabled Children

The importance of teacher-child relationships in general

classes also applies to children with disabilities as a precondi-

tion for the children’s quality of life and the reduction of prob-

lem behaviors (e.g., Hastings, 2005; Schuengel, Kef, Damen, &

Worm, 2010), as reported by many previous studies (Blacher,

Baker, & Eisenhower, 2009; Eisenhower, Baker, & Blacher,

2007; Lang, Marlow, Goodman, Meltzer, & Ford, 2013; Libbet,

2004; Mclntyre, Blacher, & Baker, 2006; Robertson et al., 2003;

Roeden, Maaskant, Koomen, Candel, & Curfs, 2012). Eisen-

hower et al. (2007) showed that the quality of teacher-child re-

lationships was lower for 6-year-old children with intellectual

disability compared with typically developing children. Inter-

estingly, Blacher et al. (2009) followed the Eisenhower et al.

(2007) sample over the subsequent 2 years and examined

whether the teacher-child relationship quality would be stable

over time and whether the lower quality of teacher-child rela-

tionships among children with intellectual disability would

continue over time. Results showed that the quality of teacher-

child relationships was moderately stable with typically devel-

oping children, but it was not with intellectually disabled chil-

dren. Specifically, lower quality teacher-child relationships

con-tinued over the subsequent 2 years. Robertson et al. (2003)

investigated the quality of teacher-child relationships with chil-

dren with autism spectrum disorders. They found that children

with autism spectrum disorder formed multidimensional rela-

tionships with their general education teachers to a degree that

was modulated by the children’s problem behavior and level of

inclusion in the class. Importantly, the children’s problem be-

havior was lessened when their general education teacher per-

ceived positive relationships with them.

Previous studies found that adult attachment styles for teach-

ers in primary and secondary schools modulated the teacher-

children relationships (Riley, 2009). Moreover, dimensions of

the STRS questionnaire are based on concepts from attachment

theory (Roeden et al., 2012). In our next topic, we review at-

tachment theory and discuss the application of attachment the-

ory to teacher-child relationships in inclusive education.

The Influence of Teachers’ Attachment Style on

Teacher-Child Relationships

Attachment Theory in Typically Developing Children

Attachment is an affective connection that is typically de-

veloped through interactions between children and a mother

figure (Bowlby, 1969). Attachment relationships are based on

an internal representation (IWM: internal working model) that

represents how others will perceive and interact with an indi-

vidual beyond early childhood. Children derive their sense of

self-efficacy from their IWM: positive representations provide

good self-efficacy, whereas negative representations provide

poor self-efficacy. The magnitude of children’s attachment has

been measured by the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP: Ains-

worth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1989). The SSP is an experi-

mental design in which researchers observe children’s behavior

toward their parent after a short separation. According to the

children’s responses, they are generally classified into one of

three attachment styles: secure, anxious, or avoidant. Children

with a secure attachment style do not show resistant behaviors

toward their parent after a short separation, whereas children

with an anxious style desire proximity to their parent but si-

multaneously resist their parent’s attempts at affection. Chil-

dren with an avoidant style display avoidant behaviors and do

not to seek the proximity of their parent. In general, estimates

are that 65% of children have a secure attachment style, 15%

have an anxious attachment style, and 20% are avoidant (Van

IJzendoorn, Goldberg, Kroonenberg, & Frenkl, 1992).

Attachment Theory in Children with Developmental

Disorders and Intellectual Disability

Regarding the attachment styles of children with develop-

mental disorders (especially autism spectrum disorders), a me-

ta-analysis (Rutgers, Bakermans-Kranenburg, Van IJzendoorn,

& Van Berckelaer-Onnes, 2004) indicated that children with

autism spectrum disorder exhibit a secure attachment style to

about the same degree as normally developing children. Using

the SSP method, 53% (40% - 63%) of children with autism

spectrum disorder were classified as having a secure attachment

style. On the basis of these results and in terms of attachment

formation, children with an autism spectrum disorder might

show the same development as normally developing children

(Dissanayake & Crossley, 1997).

In contrast, children with autism spectrum disorder and in-

tellectual disability generally show a different attachment-style

tendency (Carvill, 2001; Clegg & Sheard, 2002; De Schipper,

510

J. TAKAHASHI

Stolk, & Schuengel, 2006; De Schipper & Schuengel, 2010;

Schuengel, et al., 2010). Rogers, Ozonoff, & Maslin-Cole

(1991) indicated that differences in attachment style compared

with typically developing children were caused by their level of

cognitive ability. Similar indications were proposed by Schip-

per et al. (2006), who reported that attachment behavior varied

depending on children’s diagnoses. The risk of problem behav-

ior in children with intellectual disability was about three times

greater than that of typically developing children (Baker, Mcin-

tyre, Blacher, Crnic, Edelbrock, & Low, 2003). Both teachers

and parents report many of the same problem behaviors and

lack of social skills (Gagon, Vitaro, & Tremblay, 1992). In chil-

dren with intellectual disability, the form of attachment rela-

tionships with parents at home is likely to carry over to tea-

cher-child relationships in school (O’Connor & McCartney,

2006). Parents of children with intellectual disabilities generally

have negative parent-child relationships. Thus, problem behav-

iors and early parent-child relationships in the home could pre-

dict the quality of teacher-child relationships in school (Eisen-

hower et al., 2007). Considering these indications, as reported

by Rogers et al. (1991), the child’s IQ level would mainly af-

fect attachment-style differences between children with typical

development, developmental disorders, and intellectual disabi-

lities.

Attachment Theory in Children Extended to Adult

Attachment Theory

Many studies have indicated that child attachment theory can

be extended to adult attachment theory through the life span

(e.g., Ainsworth, 1989; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Murphy &

Bates, 1997). In order to measure adult attachment, Hazan and

Shaver (1987) developed the Attachment Style Questionnaire

(ECR: Experiences in Close Relationships, Brennan, Clark, &

Shaver, 1998). This questionnaire is a self-report measure com-

posed of three short paragraphs that correspond to the three

attachment styles from the SSP method (i.e., secure, anxious,

and avoidant). Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) recently pro-

posed an additional four categories that could be logically de-

rived by combining two levels of “self-representation” (posi-

tive or negative) with two levels of “others-representation” (po-

sitive or negative) in adult attachment theory. The self-repre-

sentation model reflects anxiety about closeness (i.e., whether

the self is worthy of support), and the others-representation

model reflects avoidance of intimacy (i.e., whether others are

seen as trustworthy). Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) con-

ceptualized four styles based on these two axes: secure, preoc-

cupied, fearful, and dismissing. The secure style has positive

self- and others-representations. These individuals feel that the

self is worthy and others are accepting, suggesting that secure

individuals are neither anxious about abandonment nor avoi-

dant of intimacy (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Related to

these characteristics, secure individuals display better mental

health and positive self-perception (Kanemasa & Daibo, 2003).

Preoccupied individuals have a negative self-representation but

positive others-representation. These individuals feel that the

self is not worthy but that others are accepting. Dismissing in-

dividuals have a positive self-representation but negative others-

representation. These individuals sense that the self is worthy

but that others are not accepting. In order to protect themselves

against disappointment, dismissing individuals generally main-

tain independence and avoid close relationships with others

(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Thus, although dismissing

individuals show high self-esteem (similar to secure individu-

als), their social interactions are poor (Wilkinson & Parry,

2004). Fearful individuals have negative self- and others-rep-

resentations. These individuals feel that the self is unworthy of

support and others are not generally accepting, suggesting that

they are anxious about abandonment and rejection; thus, fearful

individuals avoid intimacy. The Bartholomew and Horowitz

(1991) results classified their sample into the four attachment

styles as follows: secure (57%), preoccupied (10%), fearful

(15%), and dismissing (18%).

Adult Attachment Theory Underlying Social

Interaction Ability Affects Teacher-Child

Relationships

Previous studies have generally indicated that adult attach-

ment style affects social interaction ability (DiTommaso, Bran-

nen-McNulty, Ross, & Burgess, 2003; Hori & Kobayashi, 2010;

Kanemasa, 2005, 2007; Kanemasa & Daibo, 2003; Takahashi,

Tamaki, & Yamawaki, i n pres s ; Tamaki & Takahashi, in press).

For example, Tamaki and Takahashi (in press) examined the

relationship between adult attachment style and social interac-

tion abilities in Japanese university students. Participants (N =

212, 110 men and 102 women) completed questionnaires on

both attachment style and social skills. Results showed that

those with dismissing and fearful styles had lower scores on

many social-skill subscales compared with those who had se-

cure and preoccupied styles. These results indicated that a ne-

gative others-representation attachment style affected to social-

skill scores. Considering these indications, a teacher’s attach-

ment style is related to social interaction ability and may be an

important factor in the teacher-child relationship. Specifically,

attachment relationships are important and potentially protec-

tive mechanisms including children’s behavior (Schipper et al.,

2006). Thus, positive relationships with teachers seem to play a

strong role for children with disabilities (Eisenhower, Baker, &

Blacher, 2007; Hamre & Pianta, 2001). However, to the best of

our knowledge, few studies have examined the effect of teach-

ers’ attachment styles on teacher-child relationships in inclusive

education settings serving children with disabilities. In the next

section, we discuss the application of our conceptual assump-

tions to teacher training programs.

Applying Adult Attachment Theory to Teacher

Training for Inclusive Education in a Japanese

University

In this section, we propose that adult attachment style should

be considered in teacher training for inclusive education.

Teachers should have the ability to interact socially with

children and to build good relationships with them (Eisenhower

et al., 2007; Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Considering that adult at-

tachment theory underlies social interaction ability, secure in-

dividuals might more easily build positive teacher-child rela-

tionships compared with insecure (preoccupied, dismissing, and

fearful) individuals because secure individuals hold positive

self- and others-representations (i.e., self is worthy, and others

are accepting), whereas insecure individuals hold negative self-

or others-representations (i.e., preoccupied: self is not worthy,

but others are accepting; dismissing: self is worthy, but others

are not accepting; and fearful: self is unworthy of support, and

J. TAKAHASHI

others are not generally accepting). Positive self- and others-

representations are associated with good mental health (e.g.,

DiTommaso et al., 2003) and social interaction ability (e.g.,

Tamaki & Takahashi, in press). Thus, a teacher’s attachment

style is important and is a potential protective mechanism in

teacher-child relationships (Schipper et al., 2006).

Previous studies have indicated that adult attachment styles

might vary depending on interpersonal relationships and cir-

cumstances through the life span, such as love relationships or

major life transitions (e.g., Bowlby, 1988). Moreover, psycho-

therapy has led to significant changes toward increased secure

attachment (e.g., Lawson, Barnes, Madkins, & Francios-La-

monte, 2006; Travis, Binder, Bliwise, & Horne-Moyer, 2001).

For example, Travis et al. (2001) conducted time-limited dyna-

mic psychotherapy (see Strupp & Binder, 1984) and compared

pre- and post-treatment attachment styles. Results showed that

a significant number of clients changed from an insecure at-

tachment style to a secure attachment style. Similar results were

obtained by using group therapy (Lawson et al., 2006).

The teacher training course in a Japanese university is gener-

ally conducted as follows: second-year undergraduates receive

instruction before visiting schools, third-year undergraduates

receive instruction before they practice teaching, and fourth-

year undergraduates receive instruction after they practice tea-

ching. On the basis of adult attachment theory as proposed by

previous studies (Bowlby, 1988; Lawson et al., 2006; Travis et

al., 2001), we suggest measuring adult attachment style for uni-

versity students enrolled in a teacher-training course and com-

paring the attachment styles between pre-teaching practice in

the third undergraduate year and post-teaching practice in the

fourth undergraduate year. Efforts might be needed to help

students with insecure attachment styles to attain a secure style

before they begin their teaching practice in their third year. A

similar study method has been used in Japanese university

teacher-training courses with regard to various viewpoints, such

as teaching competence or motivation for becoming a teacher

(e.g., Imae & Shimizu, 1994; Koizumi, 2008). We propose that

adult attachment style is also an important factor to be consid-

ered in a teacher-training program.

In this paper, we have identified potential problems with tea-

cher-child relationships involving disabled children being serv-

ed in inclusive education. We reviewed previous studies that

examined the connection between teacher-child relationships

and children’s school adjustment and between teacher-child re-

lationships and adult attachment style. From these indications,

we pointed out the importance of teachers’ attachment style in

teacher-child relationships in inclusive education. Future re-

search might provide evidence that teachers’ attachment style is

a potent factor in teacher-child relationships in inclusive educa-

tion. Depending on the evidence of future studies, teacher-

training programs for inclusive education can be facilitated by

considering teachers’ attachment styles.

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