Oman is a fast developing country where about 76% of registered vehicles as of 2014 were private cars with approximately one private car per household. The growth of automobile is faster than the growth of human population. From 2000-2009, Omani population has increased by 2% per annum while automobile usage in the country has increased by 4.3%. The leadership of Sultanate of Oman has pledged to cut down greenhouse (GHG) emissions by 2% as a commitment to United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Due to very limited public transportation system, traffic congestion and emission from vehicles are high during working days since majority of individuals uses private vehicles as only means of transport. This paper seeks to combine mitigation measures adopted in selected Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and UNFCCC to suggest cost-effective measures suitable in reducing GHG emissions from road transportation sector in Oman. These measures will specifically reduce vehicular emissions during working days where car occupancy rates are very low in an economically sustainable way.
Urban environment is rapidly dominating the world. The current global urban population is about 50% in early 21st century and it is expected to reach 60% by the year 2060 mostly in developing countries. Carbon dioxides (CO2) is the major greenhouse gas (GHG) produced by vehicles in the urban areas as well as other gases such volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) which pose health threat to human population [
Oil is the dominant source of fuel for major modes of transportation of which road transportation alone accounts for 81% of total energy consumed [
Oman is fast developing in the region where about 76% of registered vehicles as of 2014 were private cars with approximately one private car per household [
The transportation is an important sector as it supports businesses and commerce and facilitates movement of general goods and services and other social activities thereby contributing to sustainable development. Thus, a good transportation system should not only harmonize economic growth with land-use planning and promotion of public transport systems but also conserve resources in environmentally friendly manner [
Most MENA countries share similarities in transportation modes, this could be due to similarities in terms of climate, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) due to similar natural resources but some countries e.g. United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Egypt has had a tremendous improvement in their road sectors over the years.
Countries | National Policies to Promote | |
---|---|---|
Walking or Cycling | Public Transportation | |
Bahrain | No | No |
Egypt | No | Yes |
Israel | No | Yes |
Jordan | No | Yes |
Kuwait | No | No |
Libya | No | No |
Morocco | No | Yes |
Oman | No | No |
Qatar | No | Yes |
Saudi Arabia | No | Yes |
Syria | No | Yes |
Tunisia | No | Yes |
Turkey | No | Yes |
UAE | Yes | Yes |
Yemen | No | No |
Source: [
The transportation sector alone in Arab region (including GCC countries) constituted about 22% of total GHG emissions of which 85% was attributed to urban transportation. In 2005, the total gasoline and diesel oil consumption in road transportation alone excluding low income countries like Comoros, Djibouti, Mauritania, Somalia and western Sahara, reached about 84 million tonnes of oil equivalents, and CO2 emissions reaching about 258.4 million tonnes [
The current major fuel used for road transportation sector in Oman is either petrol or diesel while compressed natural gas (CNG) and electrically operated technologies are still waiting their ground to be explored.
Mitigation of climate change is designed to provide authoritative, timely infor-
mation in all aspects of technologies and socio-economic policies, including cost effective measures to control GHG emissions. However, costly mitigation measures could have adverse effects on economic development. This dilemma facing policy makers results in tension that is manifested in the debate over the scale of the interventions and the balance to be adopted between climate policy and economic development [
Currently, when public road transport services are attracting significant attention from policy makers globally as means of reducing GHG emissions, yet these services are low in Oman [
Manufacturing | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy Sector | industries and | Transport | Other Sectors | Total | ||||||
Construction | ||||||||||
Country/Region | ||||||||||
Millions Tonnes of | Millions Tonnes of | Millons Tonnes of | Millions Tonnes | Milloins Tonnes of | ||||||
% | % | % | % | |||||||
CO2 | CO2 | CO2 | CO2 | CO2 | ||||||
Oman | 17.08 | 63 | 5.1 | 19 | 3.61 | 13 | 1.19 | 4 | 26.98 | |
UAE | 53.08 | 48 | 31.52 | 29 | 22.06 | 20 | 3.72 | 3 | 110.38 | |
Saudi Arabia | 171.79 | 54 | 71.44 | 22 | 72.52 | 23 | 3.74 | 1 | 319.68 | |
Qatar | 21.05 | 58 | 9.04 | 25 | 6.14 | 17 | 0.14 | 0 | 36.37 | |
Kuwait | 50.14 | 67 | 12.42 | 17 | 8.04 | 11 | 4.02 | 5 | 74.62 | |
Bahrain | 11.39 | 62 | 4.05 | 22 | 2.65 | 14 | 0.23 | 1 | 18.32 | |
Total GCC | 324.53 | - | 133.57 | - | 115.02 | - | 13.04 | - | 586.35 | |
Iran | 108.14 | 27 | 76.44 | 19 | 100.31 | 25 | 122.21 | 30 | 407.1 | |
Israel | 40.27 | 67 | 1.81 | 3 | 9.86 | 16 | 7.91 | 13 | 59.85 | |
Syria | 22.3 | 47 | 9.78 | 20 | 11.74 | 25 | 3.94 | 8 | 47.76 | |
Libya | 23.6 | 52 | 7.31 | 16 | 11.72 | 26 | 2.77 | 6 | 45.4 | |
Morocco | 18.03 | 44 | 7.16 | 17 | 1.82 | 4 | 14.34 | 35 | 41.35 | |
Iraq | 29.08 | 34 | 17.54 | 21 | 29.63 | 35 | 8.39 | 10 | 84.64 | |
Egypt | 61.56 | 42 | 37.14 | 25 | 31.59 | 21 | 17.03 | 12 | 147.59 | |
Tunisia | 6.78 | 35 | 3.85 | 20 | 4.54 | 24 | 4.11 | 21 | 19.28 | |
Yemen | 5.76 | 31 | 1.83 | 10 | 6.18 | 33 | 4.92 | 26 | 18.69 | |
Algeria | 35.59 | 42 | 11.18 | 13 | 17.78 | 21 | 19.75 | 23 | 84.3 | |
Jordan | 7.02 | 39 | 2.91 | 16 | 4.78 | 27 | 3.2 | 18 | 17.91 | |
Lebanon | 6.76 | 43 | 3.19 | 20 | 3.97 | 25 | 1.89 | 12 | 15.81 | |
Total MENA | 689.61 | 44 | 313.98 | 20 | 348.94 | 22 | 223.5 | 14 | 1576.03 | |
Asia (excl. China) | 1303.11 | 50 | 635.89 | 25 | 407.53 | 16 | 245.46 | 9 | 2590.99 | |
Latin America (excl. Mexico) | 262.94 | 28 | 238.83 | 25 | 324.37 | 35 | 111.64 | 12 | 937.68 | |
Non-OECD Total | 6636.35 | 50 | 3294.63 | 25 | 1856.69 | 14 | 1479.87 | 11 | 13267.54 | |
World | 12307.24 | 45 | 5184.04 | 19 | 6337.02 | 23 | 3308.06 | 12 | 27136.36 |
Source: [
per capita income in these countries and will make Sultanate of Oman some flexibility to implement these mitigation measures (
Country/ Sector | Source | Mitigation Measure | Capacity to Adopt | Relevance to Oman (If Yes) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes | No | ||||
Kuwait | [ | ・ Improvement of fuel energy efficiency for light vehicles ・ Use of alternate fuels (compressed natural gas) ・ Introduction of travel management demand management system (smart growth land use planning, advance management traffic system) | √ √ √ | Reduction in petrol and diesel demand Reduction in PM10 emissions Will reduce traffic congestion and road accidents | |
Egypt | [ | ・ Improvement of vehicle maintenance and turning of vehicle ・ Use of compressed natural gas ・ Re-introduction of electrified rail way in inter-city and intra-city transport ・ Intensifying the use of environmentally sound river transport system ・ Extending metro line transport to newly developed cities | √ √ √ | √ √ | Reduction in SO2 and NOx emissions Reduction in SO2 and NOx emissions Will reduce fuel consumption and decrease fuel congestion |
Jordan | [ | ・ Improve fuel energy efficiency of vehicles ・ Tax and duty exemptions of newly imported taxis ・ Introduction of double-deck buses in municipalities. Improvement of traffic management system ・ Tax exemptions on hybrid cars and incentives for their use | √ | √ √ √ | Will reduce emissions and long distance journeys |
United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change | [ | ・ More fuel efficient vehicles ・ Hybrid vehicles ・ Cleaner diesel vehicles and usage of biofuels ・ Model shift of road transport to railway ・ Public transport system ・ Non-motorized transport (walking and cycling) ・ Land-use and transport planning ・ Tax on vehicle purchase and duty exemptions | √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ | Reduction in SO2 and NOx emissions Reduction in PM10 emissions Reductions in SO2 and NOx emissions Will reduce road traffic accidents in Oman Reduction in number of private car users Reduction in money used in other forms of transportation Lowers traffic congestions and road accidents Will increase taxi users, increasing vehicle occupancy rates |
focused group discussion carried out for this review).
1) Non-motorized transport, NMT (Walking and cycling): Walking is the most basic urban transport mode for all short-to-medium length travel, cycling also plays a fundamental role in urban transport, especially in low and middle income countries throughout the MENA region. NMT in Cairo, Egypt was estimated to be 32% of all trips in 2001 [
In the Netherlands, with strong policies and cultural commitment, the modal share of trains from home is about 35% to 40% [
2) Reliable public transport (Metro buses ,transit buses): Public transport such as buses are significant from a socially sustainable point of view because it gives higher mobility to people who do not have access to car and also attractive from an economically sustainable perspective [
Currently the Government of Oman has increased the number of buses in major cities in the country as of mid 2016. Muscat governorate is currently operating about 36 buses with 28 buses on inter-city routes in addition to already existing 400 school buses serving various schools in the country. The Government of Oman is planning to increase this number in order to enhance reduction in traffic congestion, road accidents and CO2 emissions. Though, the patronage of the buses are gradually increasing, the current waiting times for the buses is about 15 - 20 minutes in afternoon and 15 - 30 minutes in the morning and evening when traffic congestion is at the peak level. These waiting times is expected to reduce in future as patronage and number of buses increases and while reducing traffic congestions [
3) Eco-driving: This can be explained as changes in driving practices that reduces fuel consumption and reduces emission of pollutants such as CO2, SO2, NOX, CO in vehicles. Fuel-efficient driving practices, smoother acceleration and deceleration, keeping of engine revolution low, shutting off engine when idling, reducing maximum speeds and maintaining proper tire pressure [
This option has the potential for both substantial immediate and long term benefits. Slower speed has the potential to provide extensive savings with some 15% - 20% reduction in CO2 emissions if a maximum speed of limit 80 km/h is introduced on motorways and truck roads. With lower speeds on other roads such as residential roads, effective compliance is likely to impact CO2 reduction [
4) Increasing urban car occupancy rate: According to European Environment Agency [
Increasing occupancy rates are the real opportunity to cut emissions provided this is achieved by lowering the number of cars on the road. This is a major focus of policy attention, with appropriate incentives. Government, institution, private companies, families and social groups should promote campaign among themselves and the general public on car shares as means of raising awareness of GHG reduction while reducing congestions and travel cost [
5) Taxation and pricing of fuel: Fuel tax encourages consumers to buy more energy efficient vehicles, tend to leads to fewer vehicles being bought, less traffic and more energy efficient driving behavior. Unlike the users of gasoline cars, the users of diesel cars and trucks may not pay the full social cost through fuel tax and other users [
This option does not seem to have political support at this time but has an advantage of promoting fuel conservation in many directions, particularly reduced driving and changes in driving behavior including speed in all vehicles [
1) Railway (electric and hybrid trains): For long distance journeys and trades, rail is the only viable alternative. Wheels on rails are seen as ecologically aware form of transportation, being four times more efficient than road transportation for passengers and twice as efficient as freight [
2) Alternate fuel (Biofuels): There are many alternative fuels on the market, many of which have lower carbon content than petrol and diesel, and including biofuels (methanol, ethanol, biodiesel). Ethanol and biodiesel are potentially most suitable to use in India. The government of India has already introduced a program of 5% ethanol in petrol [
3) Use of electric and hybrid cars and incentives for their usage: Hybrid vehicles provide an intermittent step between the internal combustion engine and electric motor. Energy management is used to optimize the fuel economy of both engines because electric and combustion engines work better under different driving situations [
Hybrid vehicles are currently in mass production with estimated 2006 global sales of 373,000, mainly in Japan and the US, compared with conventional petrol-engine cars, full hybrid can improve fuel efficiency by up to 60%, with higher gains in urban driving [
4) Improvement of traffic management system: Urbanization and urban development are critical factors for CO2 emissions and mitigation; better urban designs have potential to influence energy consumptions and GHG emissions reduction [
This review investigates the current road transportation sector in Oman and MENA countries as a whole and how it influences GHG emissions and the suggested plausible mitigation measures. Achieving reductions in road transport GHG emissions requires a much broader policy response [
Amoatey, P. and Sulaiman, H. (2017) Options for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies for Road Transportation in Oman. American Journal of Climate Change, 6, 217-229. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajcc.2017.62011