An Assessment of Bioclimatic Conditions for Tourists—A Case Study of Mashhad, Iran

Abstract

Weather and climate have a double-edged effect on tourism. It can be considered both as a limiting and a developing factor for tourism. In this regard, having access to precise bio-climatic information can be of high use to enhance the quality of tourism services. This study has evaluated the Bio-climatic conditions of the tourists in Mashhad, a North-Eastern city in Iran, through the use of thermo-physiological indicator of physiological equivalent temperature (PET). Studies have been done for the hours of 9:30, 12:30 and 21:30 of the local time using the statistical data of the period between 1978 and 2007. According to the results, the longest period of climatic-comfort-hours is around 21:30 (mainly in June, July, and August), and the shortest duration of climatic-comfort-hours is around 9:30 (sporadically assessed in April, May and October). The Bio-climatic conditions during the Nowruz Holidays are only comfortable in the evenings. Especially, there is the challenge of cold stress in the mornings and more specifically, at nights. However, the best condition of the whole assessed times in summer holidays (that is June 22nd to September 23rd) is at 21:30. Summer days are not ideal for tourism due to the heat stress. The daily change of PET index shows a Gaussian curve, the peak of which (indicative of too much heat stress) shows July, and non-stress condition can be seen on both sides of this curve.

Share and Cite:

R. Esmaili and G. Ghalhari, "An Assessment of Bioclimatic Conditions for Tourists—A Case Study of Mashhad, Iran," Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 1, 2014, pp. 137-146. doi: 10.4236/acs.2014.41016.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] UNWTO, “UNWTO Tourism Highlights: 2011 Edition,” UNWTO, Madrid, 2012.
[2] D. Scott, G. McBoyle and M. Schwartzentruber, “Climate Change and the Distribution of Climatic Resources for Tourism in North America,” Climate Research, Vol. 7, 2004, pp. 105-117. www.int-res.com
[3] D. Scott, C. J. Lemieux and L. Malone, “Climate Services to Support Stainable Tourism and Adaptation to Climate Change,” Climate Research, Vol. 47, No. 1-2, 2011, pp. 111-122. http://dx.doi.org/10. 3354/cr00952
[4] G. Wall and C. Badke, “Tourism and Climate Change: An International Perspective,” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1994, pp. 193-203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669589409 510696
[5] K. Blazejczyk, “Weather Limitations for winter and Summer Tourism in Europe,” Developments in Tourism Climatology, 2007.
[6] C. R. De Freitas, “Theory, Concepts and Methods in Climate Tourism Research,” In: A. Matzarakis and C. R. de Freitas, Eds., Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Climate, Tourism and Recreation, International Society of Biometeorology, Commission on Climate Tourism and Recreation, 2001, pp. 3-20. www.mif.uni-freiburg.de/isb/ws/papers/full_report.pdf
[7] E. C. Thom, “The Discomfort Index. Weatherwise 12:57-60VDI (1998) Methods for the Human-Biometerological Assessment of Climate and Air Hygiene for Urban and Regional Planning. Part I: Climate. VDI Guideline 3787. Part 2,” Beuth, Berlin, 1959.
[8] P. A. Siple and C. F. Passel, “Measurements of Dry Atmospheric Cooling in Subfreezing Temperatures,” American Philosophical Society, Vol. 89, 1945, pp. 177-199.
[9] V. Olgy, “Design with Climate,” Princeton University Press, 1973, p. 185.
[10] W. H. Terjung, “World Patterns of the Monthly Comfort Index,” International Journal of Biometeorology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1968, pp. 119-123,141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01553502
[11] Z. Mieczkowski, “The Tourism Climate Index: A Method for Evaluating World Climates for Tourism,” The Canadian Geographer, Vol. 29, 1985, pp. 220-233. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0064.1985. tb00365.x
[12] A. Matzarakis and H. Mayer, “Another Kind of Environmental Stress: Thermal Stress. WHO Collaborating Centre for Air Quality Management and Air Pollution Control,” NEWSLETTERS, Vol. 18, 1996, pp. 7-10.
[13] D. I. Verein, “VDI 3787, Part I: Environmental Meteorology, Methods for the Human-Biometeorological Evaluation of Climate and Air Quality for the Urban and Regional Planning at Regional Level. Part I: Climate,” VDI/DIN-Handbuch Reinhaltung der Luft, Band 1b, Düsseldorf, 1998, 29 p.
[14] P. Hoppe, “The Physiological Equivalent Temperature—A Universal Index for the Biometeorological Assessment of the Thermal Environment,” International Journal of Biometeorology, Vol. 43, 1999, p. 7175.
[15] A. Matzarakis, H. Mayer and M. G. Iziomon, “Applications of a Universal Thermal Index: Physiological Equivalent Temperature,” International Journal of Biometeorology, Vol. 43, 1999, pp. 78-84.
[16] A. P. Gagge, A. P. Fobelets and L. G. Berglund, “A Standard Predictive Index of Human Response to the Thermal Environment,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 92, 1986, pp. 709-731.
http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=6494216
[17] J. Spagnolo and R. de Dear, “A Field Study of Thermal Comfort in Outdoor and Semi-Outdoor Environments in Subtropical Sydney Australia,” Building and Environment, Vol. 38, No. 5, 2003, pp. 721-738. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(02)00209-3
[18] M. Kasmai, “Climate and Architecture,” Publishing Territory, Isfahan, 1990. Chapter II.
[19] M. R. Kaviani, “The Study and Zonation Map of Human Bioclimatic of Iran,” Geographical Research Quarterly, Vol. 48, 1993, pp. 47-65.
[20] M. R. Kaviani, H. Ghayoor and N. Payandeh, “Assessment of Effective Temperature in Iran,” Geography Research Journal, Vol. 80, 2007, pp. 11-29.
[21] M. Farajzadeh and A. Ahmad Abadi, ,. Assessment and Mapping of Iranian Tourism Climate Using Tourism Climate Index (TCI),” Journal of Geographical Research, Vol. 71, No. , 2010, pp. 31-42.
[22] H. Zolfaghari, “Determination of Suitable Calendar for Tourism in Tabriz with Using the Thermo-Physiological Indices (PET and PMV),” Geographical Research Quarterly, Vol. 39, No. 62, 2008, pp. 129-141.
[23] R. Esmaili, S. Haghighat, Akram, Malbosi and Sharare, “Assessment of Chabahar Port Climate Relaxing Conditions for Tourism Development,” 4th International Congress of the Islamic World Geographers (ICIWG), Zahedan, 14-16 April 2010.
[24] R. Esmaeili, A. Gandomkar and M. Habibi Nokhndan, “Several Major Cities in the Comfort of Climate Indices Using Physiologically Equivalent Temperature,” Natural Geographical Journal, Vol. 75, 2011, p. 1390.
[25] A. Masoodian and M. R. Kaviani, “Climatology,” First Printing, Esfahan University, Esfahan, 2009.
[26] E. A. Grigorieva and A. Matzarakis, “Physiologically Equivalent Temperature in Extreme Climate Regions in the Russian Far East,” In: A. Matzarakis, H. Mayer and F.-M. Chmielewski, Eds., Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Biometeorology, Ber. Meteorol. Inst. Univ., Freiburg, Vol. 20, 2010, pp. 386-391.
[27] P. O. Fanger, “Thermal Comfort,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
[28] G. Jendritzky, G. Menz, W. Schmidt-Kessen and H. Schirmer, “Methodology for Spatial Evaluation of the Thermal Component in the Bioclimatic of People,” Academy of Spatial Research and Planning, Hanover, 1990.
[29] M. C. Thomson, R. Garcia-Herrera and M. Beniston, “Seasonal Forecasts, Climatic Change and Human Health: Health and Climate,” Springer Science + Business Media B.V, 2008, 232 p.
[30] A. Matzarakis, “Climate Thermal Comfort and Tourism,” Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Climate Change and Tourism Assessment and Coping Strategies, Bas Amelung, Krzysztof Blazejczyk, Andreas Matzarakis, 2007.
[31] T.-P. Lin and A. Matzarakis, “Tourism Climate Information Based on Human Thermal Perception in Taiwan and Eastern China,” Journal of Tourism Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, 2011, pp. 492-500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.03.017
[32] A. Matzarakis, “Assessing Climate for Tourism Purposes Existing Methods and Tools for the Thermal Complex,” In: A. Matzarakis and C. R. de Freitas, Eds., Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Climate, Tourism and Recreation, International Society of Biometeorology, Commission on Climate, Tourism and Recreation, Greece, 2001, pp. 101-113. www.mif.uni-freiburg.de/isb/ ws/papers/full_report.pdf
[33] A. Mayer and A. Matzarakis, “Humman Biometeorological Assessment of the Urban Climate Method, Results, Deficiencies,” Meteorological Institute, University of Freiburg Press, Germany, 2003.
[34] B. Alijani, “Iran’s Climate,” 2003.
[35] A. Matzarakis, F. Rutz and H. Mayer, “Modelling Radiation Fluxes in Simple and Complex Environments—Application of the RayMan Model,” International Journal of Biometeorology, Vol. 51, No. 4, 2007, pp. 323-334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-006-0061-8
[36] M. B. Gomez Martin, “An Evaluation of the Tourist Potential of the Climate in Catalonia (Spain): A Regional Study,” Geografska Annaler, Vol. 86, No. 3, 2004, pp. 249-264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j. 0435-3676.2004.00229.x
[37] J. P. Besancenot, “Climat et Tourisme,” Masson édit. Collection Géographie, Paris, 1990.

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.