Survival mechanisms of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis within host species and in the environment—A review
Shoor Vir Singh, Ajay Vir Singh, Avnish Kumar, Pravin Kumar Singh, Rajib Deb, Amit Kumar Verma, Amit Kumar, Ruchi Tiwari, Sandip Chakraborty, Kuldeep Dhama
Animal Genetics and Breeding, Project Directorate on Cattle, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Meerut, India.
Animal Resource Development Department, Pt. Nehru Complex, Agartala, India.
Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Uttar Pradesh Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go-Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, India.
Department of Veterinary Epidemiology & Preventive Medicine, Uttar Pradesh Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vi- gyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go-Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, India.
Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Bareilly, India.
Microbiology Laboratory, Animal Health Division, Central Institute for Research on Goats (CIRG), Mathura, India.
National JALMA Institute for Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases (NJIL and OMD), Agra, India.
DOI: 10.4236/ns.2013.56088   PDF    HTML   XML   5,795 Downloads   10,461 Views   Citations

Abstract

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis causes chronic inflammation of the intestine known as Johne’s disease (JD) in domestic and wild ruminants including primates. MAP has also been associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) so called Crohn’s disease (CD) of human beings, which is incurable even after surgery. By virtue of the pasteurization resistant power, high endemicity of the infection in animals continues to be the permanent source of infection to human population. High bio-burden of MAP in wide range of biotic (animal hosts including human beings) and abiotic environment in each and every country where it has been investigated, serves a reminder about the survival abilities of the MAP in diverse range of environmental conditions. Ability of the MAP to evade immune system of the host and the temporal events during infection of the macro-phages, is an area of major concern and research activities as the pattern of distribution are quiet different from those of other pathogenic intracellular organisms. Moreover, the organism can survive over a wide range of environmental conditions such as high and low environmental temperatures, pasteurization, low pH, and high salt concentration etc. This superior survival efficiency from environmental degradation and dormancy within host allows the pathogen to be available for causing disease and pathogenicity in animals and human beings, when conditions are favorable. Perusal of literature reveal that, despite the availability of whole genome sequence of MAP, a very little is known about the replication, persistence and survival mechanisms of this pathogen. Therefore, this review tries to address the survival mechanisms of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in the different host species and adverse environmental conditions in order to allow designing of more rational diagnostic and control procedures.

Share and Cite:

Singh, S. , Singh, A. , Kumar, A. , Singh, P. , Deb, R. , Verma, A. , Kumar, A. , Tiwari, R. , Chakraborty, S. and Dhama, K. (2013) Survival mechanisms of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis within host species and in the environment—A review. Natural Science, 5, 710-723. doi: 10.4236/ns.2013.56088.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Dhama, K., Mahendran, M., Tiwari, R., Singh, S.D., Kumar, D., Singh, S.V. and Sawant, P.M. (2011) Tuberculosis in birds: Insights into the Mycobacterium avium infections. Veterinary Medicine International, 2011, Article ID: 712369. doi:10.4061/2011/712369
[2] Kumar, S., Singh, S.V., Singh, A.V., Singh, P.K., Sohal, J.S., and Maitra, A. (2008) Wildlife (Boselaphus trago camelus)—Small ruminant (goat and sheep) interface in the transmission of “Bison type” genotype of Mycobacte riumavium subspecies paratuberculosis in India. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 33, 145-159. doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2008.08.006.
[3] Clarke, C.J. (1997) The pathology and pathogenesis of paratuberculosis in ruminants and other species. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 116, 217-261. doi:10.1016/S0021-9975(97)80001-1
[4] Olsen, I., Siguroardottiir, O.G. and Djonne, B. (2002) Pa ratuberculosis with special reference to cattle. A review. Veterinary Quarterly, 24, 13-28. doi:10.1080/01652176.2002.9695120
[5] Pant, S.D., Verschoor, C.P., Schenkel, F.S., You, Q., Kel ton, D.F. and Karrow, N.A. (2011) Bovine PGLYRP1 polymorphisms and their association with resistance to Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis. Animal Genetics, 42, 354-360. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2052.2010.02153.x
[6] Momotani, E. (2012) Epidemiological situation and control strategies for paratuberculosis in Japan. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research, 60, S19-S29.
[7] Arsenault, R.J., Li, Y., Bell, K., Doig, K., Potter, A., Griebel, P.J., Kusalik, A. and Napper, S. (2012) Mycobacte riumavium subsp. paratuberculosis inhibits gamma interferon-induced signaling in bovine monocytes: Insights into the cellular mechanisms of Johne’s disease. Infection and Immunity, 80, 3039-3048. doi:10.1128/IAI.00406-12
[8] Dobson, B., Liggett, S., O’Brien, R. and Griffin, J.F. (2013) Innate immune markers that distinguish red deer (Cervus elaphus) selected for resistant or susceptible genotypes for Johne’s disease. Veterinary Research, 44, 5. doi:10.1186/1297-9716-44-5
[9] Singh, A.V., Singh, S.V., Singh, P.K. and Sohal, J.S. (2010) Genotype diversity in Indian isolates of Mycobac terium avium subspecies paratuberculosis recovered from domestic and wild ruminants from different agro-climatic regions. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 33, e127-e131. doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2010.08.001
[10] Greig, A., Stevenson, K., Henderson, D., Perez, V., Hughes, V., Pavlik, I., Hines, M.E. and McKendrick, I. (1999) Epidemiological study of paratuberculosis in wild rabbits in Scotland. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 37, 1746-1751.
[11] Godfroid, J., Boelaert, F., Heier, A., Clavareau, C., Wel lemans, V., Desmecht, M., Roels, S. and Walravens, K. (2000) First evidence of Johne’s disease in farmed red deer (Cervus elephas) in Belgium. Veterinary Microbiology, 77, 283-290. doi:10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00313-8
[12] Beard, P.M., Daniels, M.J., Henderson, D., Pirie, A., Rudge, K., Buxton, D., Rhind, S. and Greig, A. (2001) Paratuberculosis infection of nonruminant wildlife in Scot land. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 39, 1517-1521. doi:10.1128/JCM.39.4.1517-1521.2001
[13] Harris, N.B. and Barletta, R.G. (2001) Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in veterinary medicine. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 14, 489-512. doi:10.1128/CMR.14.3.489-512.2001
[14] Chacon, O., Bermudez, L.E. and Barletta, R.G. (2004) Johne’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and Myco bacterium paratuberculosis. Annual Review of Microbiology, 58, 329-363. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123726
[15] Singh, P.K., Singh, S.V., Singh, A.V. and Sohal, J.S. (2008) Screening of tissues and serum by culture, PCR and ELISA for the detection of Mycobacterium avium sub species paratuberculosis from cases of clinical ovine Johne’s disease in farmer’s flocks. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 78, 1052-1056.
[16] Singh P.K., Singh S.V., Singh A.V. and Sohal J.S. (2008) Caprine paratuberculosis in farm and farmer’s goat herds: An assessment of prevalence in target tissues, comparison of culture, PCR and indigenous ELISA kit and genotypes of mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants, 14, 211-217.
[17] Singh, A.V., Singh, S.V., Singh, P.K., Sohal, J.S., Swain, N., Rajindran, A.S. and Vinodh, O.R. (2009) Multiple tests based prevalence estimates of mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection in elite farms of goats and sheep. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants, 15, 178-182.
[18] Singh, S.V., Singh, A.V., Singh, P.K., Kumar, A. and Singh, B. (2011) Molecular identification and characterization of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in free living non-human primate (Rhesus macaques) from North India. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 34, 267-271. doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2010.12.004
[19] Singh, S.V., Singh, A.V., Singh, P.K., Singh, B., Rajen dran, A.S. and Swainm, N. (2011) Recovery of Indian bi son type genotype from wild bison (Bosgourus) in India. Veterinary Research, 4, 61-65.
[20] Singh, A.V., Chauhan, D.S., Kumar, A., Singh, P.K. and Singh, S.V. (2012) Potential etiologic link and association between Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratubercu losis and Crohn’s disease in humans. Research & Reviews: A Journal of Immunology, 2, 20-33.
[21] Shankar, H., Singh, S.V., Singh P.K., Singh, A.V., Sohal, J.S. and Greenstein, R.J. (2010) Presence, characterization, and genotype profiles of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis from unpasteurized individual and pooled milk, commercial pasteurized milk, and milk products in India by culture, PCR, and PCR-REA methods. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 14, 121-126. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2009.03.031
[22] Tiwari, A., Singh, S.V., Mishra, B.N., Shishodia, A., So lanki M., Singh, B. and Kumar, A. (2010) Identification and characterization of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in the soil samples from North India. National Seminar on Stress Management in Small Ruminant Production and Product Processing Organized by Indian Society for Sheep and Goat Production and Utilization (ISSGPU), Jaipur, 29-31 January 2010, 117.
[23] Sevilla, I., Singh, S.V., Garrido, J.M., Aduriz, G., Rodriguez, S., Geijo, M.V., Whittington, R.J., Saunders, V., Whit lock, R.H. and Juste, R.A. (2005) PCR-REA genotype paratuberculosis strains isolated from different host and species and geographic locations. International Office of Epizootics, 24, 1061-1066.
[24] Sohal, J.S., Singh, S.V., Singh, P.K. and Singh, A.V. (2010) On the evolution of “Indian Bison type” strains of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Microbiological Research, 165, 163-171. doi:10.1016/j.micres.2009.03.007
[25] Singh, S.V., Kumar, N., Singh, S.N., Bhattacharya, T., Sohal, J.S., Singh P.K., Singh, A.V., Singh, B., Chaubey, K.K., Gupta, S., Sharma, N., Kumar, S. and Raghava G.P.S. (2013) Genome sequence of the “Indian Bison type” biotype of Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis strain S 5. Journal of Bacteriology: Genome Announcement, in press.
[26] Singh, A.V., Singh, S.V., Makharia, G.K., Singh, P.K. and Sohal, J.S. (2008b) Presence and characterization of My cobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis from clinical and suspected cases of Crohn’s disease and in the healthy human population in India. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 12, 190. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2007.06.008
[27] Singh, S.V., Singh, P.K., Singh, A.V., Sohal, J.S. and Sharma, M.C. (2010) Therapeutic effects of a new “indigenous vaccine” developed using novel native “Indian Bison type” genotype of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis for the control of clinical Johne’s disease in naturally infected goatherds in India. Veterinary Medicine International, 2010, Article ID: 351846. doi:10.4061/2010/351846
[28] Hermon-Taylor, J. (2009) Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Crohn’s disease and the doomsday scenario. Gut Pathogens, 1, 15.
[29] Collins, M.T., Spahr, U. and Murphy, P.M. (2001) Eco logical characteristics of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. International Dairy Federation, Report No. 362, 32-40.
[30] Sweeney, R.W., Collins, M.T., Koets, A.P., McGuirk, S.M. and Roussel, A.J. (2012) Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease) in cattle and other susceptible species. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 26, 1239-1250. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.01019.x
[31] Keown, D.A., Collings, D.A. and Keenanm J.I. (2012) Uptake and persistence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in human monocytes. Infection and Immunity, 80, 3768-3775. doi:10.1128/IAI.00534-12
[32] Grant, I.R. (2005) Zoonotic potential of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis: The current position. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 98, 1282-1293. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02598.x
[33] Shisodiya, A.S., Panwar, A., Singh, S.V., Singh, P.K., Singh, A.V., Tiwari A., Singh, B. and Kumar, A. (2009) Prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculo sis, an animal pathogen, in the population of animal keepers of Ghaziabad and Saharanpur districts of North India using multiple diagnostic tests. Indian Journal of Comparative Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, 30, 42-44.
[34] Singh, A.V., Singh, S.V., Singh, P.K., Sohal, J.S. and Singh, M.K. (2011) High prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (“Indian Bison type”) in animal attendants suffering from gastrointestinal com plaints who work with goat herds endemic for Johne’s disease in India. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 15, e677-e683. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2011.04.013
[35] Pavlik, I., Horvathova, A., Dvorska, L., Bartl, J., Svas tova, P., du Maine, R. and Rychlik, I. (1999) Standardisation of restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 38, 155-167. doi:10.1016/S0167-7012(99)00091-3
[36] Cousins, D.V., Whittington, R., Marsh, I., Masters, A., Evans, R.J. and Kluver, P. (1999) Mycobacteria distinct from Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis iso lated from the faeces of ruminants possess IS900-like sequences detectable by IS900 polymerase chain reaction: Implications for diagnosis. Molecular and Cellular Probes, 13, 431-442. doi:10.1006/mcpr.1999.0275
[37] Englund, S., Bolske, G. and Johnasson, K.E. (2002) An IS900-like sequence found in a Mycobacterium sp. other than Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 209, 267-271. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2002.tb11142.x
[38] Deb, R., Saxena, V.K. and Goswami, P.P. (2011) Diagnostic tools against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection in animals: A review. Agricultural Review, 32, 46-54.
[39] Strommenger, B., Stevenson, K. and Gerlach, G.F. (2001) Isolation and diagnostic potential of ISMav2, a novel insertion sequence-like element from Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 196, 31-37. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10536.x
[40] Ellingson, J.L., Bolin, C.A. and Stabel, J.R. (1998) Identification of a gene unique to Mycobacterium avium sub species paratuberculosis and application to diagnosis of paratuberculosis. Molecular and Cellular Probes, 12, 133-142. doi:10.1006/mcpr.1998.0167
[41] Poupart, P., Coene, M., Van Heuverswyn, H. and Cocito, C. (1993) Preparation of a specific RNA probe for detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and diagnosis of Johne’s disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 31, 1601-1605.
[42] Li, L., Bannantine, J.P., Zhang, Q., Amonsin, A., May, B.J., Alt, D., Banerji, N. and Kanjilal, S. (2005) The complete genome sequence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 12344-12349. doi:10.1073/pnas.0505662102
[43] Stabel, J.R. and Bannantine, J.P. (2005) Development of a nested PCR method targeting a unique multicopy element, ISMap02, for detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in fecal samples. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43, 4744-4750. doi:10.1128/JCM.43.9.4744-4750.2005
[44] Rowe, M.T. and Grant, I.R. (2006) Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis and its potential survival tactics. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 42, 305-311. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.01873.x
[45] Lombard, J.E., Wagner, B.A., Smith, R.L., MCluskey, B.J., Harris, B.N., Payeur, J.B., Garry, F.B., Salman, M.D. (2006) Evaluation of environmental sampling and culture to determine Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratu berculosis distribution and herd infection status on US dairy operations. Journal of Dairy Science, 89, 4163-4171. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72461-4
[46] Kennedy, D.J. and Allworth, M.B. (2000) Progress in national control and assurance programs for bovine Johne’s disease in Australia. Veterinary Microbiology, 77, 443-451. doi:10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00329-1
[47] Johnson-Ifearulundu, Y., Kaneene, J.B. and Lloyd, J.W. (1999) Herd-level economic analysis of the impact of paratuberculosis on dairy herds. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 214, 822-825.
[48] Wells, S.J., Wagner, B.A. and Dargatz, D.A. (1999) Factors associated with M. a. paratuberculosis infection in U.S. dairy herds. Proceedings of the 6th International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis, Melbourne, 14-18 February, 62-65.
[49] Lamont, E.A., O’Grady, S.M., Davis, W.C., Eckstein, T. and Sreevatsan, S. (2012) Infection with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis results in rapid interleu kin-1β release and macrophage transepithelial migration. Infection and Immunity, 80, 3225-3235. doi:10.1128/IAI.06322-11
[50] Weiss, D.J. and Souza, C.D. (2008) Review paper: Modulation of mononuclear phagocyte function by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Veterinary Pathology, 45, 829-841. doi:10.1354/vp.45-6-829
[51] Secott, T.E., Lin, T.L. and Wu, C.C. (2004) Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis fibronectin attachment protein facilitates M-Cell targeting and invasion through a fibronectin bridge with host integrins. Infection and Immunity, 72, 3724-3732. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.7.3724-3732.2004
[52] Sohal, J.S., Singh, S.V., Tyagi, P., Subhodh, S., Singh, P.K., Singh, A.V., Narayanasamy, K., Sheoran, N. and Sandhu, K.S. (2008) Immunology of mycobacterial infections: With special reference to Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Immunobiology, 213, 585-598. doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2007.11.002
[53] Bermudez, L.E., Young, L.S. and Enkel, H. (1991) Inter action of Mycobacterium avium complex with human macrophages: Roles of membrane receptors and serum proteins. Infection and Immunity, 59, 1697-1702.
[54] Lamont, E.A., Bannantine, J.P., Armién, A., Ariyakumar, D.S. and Sreevatsan, S. (2012) Identification and charac terization of a spore-like morphotype in chronically starved Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis cultures. PLoS ONE, 7, e30648. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030648
[55] Chan, J., Fan, X.D., Hunter, S.W., Brennan, P.J. and Bloom, B.R. (1991) Lipoarabinomannan, a possible virulence factor involved in persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis within macrophages. Infection and Immunity, 59, 1755-1761.
[56] Shi, S. and Ehrt, S. (2006) Dihydrolipoamide acyltrans ferase is critical for Mycobacterium tuberculosis patho genesis. Infection and Immunity, 74, 56-63. doi:10.1128/IAI.74.1.56-63.2006
[57] Akaki, T., Tomioka, H., Shimizu, T., Dekio, S. and Sato, K. (2000) Comparative roles of free fatty acids with reactive nitrogen intermediates and reactive oxygen intermediates in expression of the anti-microbial activity of macrophages against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Clinical & Experimental Immunology, 121, 302-310. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2249.2000.01298.x
[58] Krensky, A.M. (2000) Granulysin—Commentary on a reemergent killer. Biochemical Pharmacology, 59, 317 320. doi:10.1016/S0006-2952(99)00177-X
[59] Kusner, D.J. (2005) Mechanisms of mycobacterial persistence in tuberculosis. Clinical Immunology, 114, 239-247. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2004.07.016
[60] Vergne, I., Chua, J., Lee, H.H., Lucas, M., Belisle, J. and Deretic, V. (2005) Mechanism of phagolysosome bio genesis block by viable Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 4033-4038. doi:10.1073/pnas.0409716102
[61] Kang, P.B., Azad, A.K., Torrelles, J.B., Kaufman, T.M., A., Tibesar, E., DesJardin, L.E. and Schlesinger, L.S. (2005) The human macrophage mannose receptor directs Mycobacterium tuberculosis lipoarabinomannan-mediated phagosome biogenesis. The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 202, 987-999. doi:10.1084/jem.20051239
[62] Mpofu, C.M., Campbell, B.J., Subramanian, S., Marshall Clarke, S., Hart, C.A., Cross, A., Roberts, C.L., McGold rick, A., Edwards, S.W. and Rhodes, J.M. (2007) Micro bialmannan inhibits bacterial killing by macrophages: A possible pathogenic mechanism for Crohn’s disease. Gas troenterology, 133, 1487-1498. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2007.08.004
[63] Rumsey, J., Valentine, J. and Naser, S.A. (2006) Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis fibronectin attachment protein facilitates M-cell targeting and invasion through a fibronectin bridge with host integrins. Medical Science Monitor, 28, 130-139.
[64] Woo, S.R., Heintzb, J.A., Albrechtb, R., Barletta, R.G. and Czuprynski, C.J. (2007) Life and death in bovine monocytes: The fate of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Microbial Pathogenesis, 43, 106-113. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2007.04.004
[65] Souza, C.D., Evanson, O.A. and Weiss, D.J. (2006) Regulation by Jun N-terminal kinase/stress activated protein kinase of cytokine expression in Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis-infected bovine monocytes. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 67, 1760-1765. doi:10.2460/ajvr.67.10.1760
[66] Weiss, D.J, Evanson, O.A., Deng, M. and Abrahamsen, M.S. (2004) Gene expression and antimicrobial activity of bovine macrophages in responses to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Veterinary Pathology, 41, 326-337. doi:10.1354/vp.41-4-326
[67] Tomioka, H., Sano, C., Sato, K., Ogasawara, K., Akaki, T., Sano, K., Cai, S.S. and Shimizu, T. (2005) Combined effects of ATP on the therapeutic efficacy of antimicrobial drug regimens against Mycobacterium avium complex infection in mice and roles of cytosolic phospholipase A2-dependent mechanisms in the ATP-mediated potentiation of antimycobacterial host resistance. The Journal of Immunology, 175, 6741-6749.
[68] Weiss, D.J., Souza, C.D., Evanson, O.A., Sanders, M. and Rutherford, M. (2008) Bovine monocyte TLR2 receptors differentially regulate the intracellular fate of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 83, 48-55. doi:10.1189/jlb.0707490
[69] Khalifeh, M.S. and Stabel, J.R. (2004) Effects of gamma interferon, interleukin-10, and transforming growth factorbeta on the survival of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in monocyte-derived macrophages from naturally infected cattle. Infection and Immunity, 72, 1974-1982. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.4.1974-1982.2004
[70] Arsenault, R.J., Li, Y., Maattanen, P., Scruten, E., Doig, K., Potter, A., Griebel, P., Kusalik, A. and Napper, S. (2013) Altered toll-like receptor 9 signaling in Mycobac terium avium subsp. paratuberculosis-infected bovine monocytes reveals potential therapeutic targets. Infection and Immunity, 81, 226-237. doi:10.1128/IAI.00785-12
[71] Arsenault, R.J., Li, Y., Bell, K., Doig, K., Potter, A., Griebel, P.J., Kusalik, A. and Napper, S. (2012) Mycobac terium avium subsp. paratuberculosis inhibits gamma interferon-induced signaling in bovine monocytes: Insights into the cellular mechanisms of Johne’s disease. Infection and Immunity, 80, 3039-3048. doi:10.1128/IAI.00406-12
[72] Singh, P.K., Singh, S.V., Saxena, V.K., Singh, M.K., Singh, A.V. and Sohal J.S. (2013) Expression profiles of different cytokine genes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of goats infected experimentally with native strain of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Animal Biotechnology, 24, 1-11.
[73] Keane, J., Balcewicz-Sablinska, M.K., Remold, H.G., Chupp, G.L., Meek, B.B., Fenton, M.J. and Kornfeld, H. (1997) Infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis promotes human alveolar macrophage apoptosis. Infection and Immunity, 65, 298-304.
[74] Balcewicz-Sablinska, M.K., Keane, J., Kornfeld, H. and Remold, H.G. (1998) Pathogenic Mycobacterium tuberculosis evades apoptosis of host macrophages by release of TNF-R2, resulting in inactivation of TNF-alpha. The Journal of Immunology, 161, 2636-2641.
[75] Aho, A.D., McNulty, A.M. and Coussens, P.M. (2003) Enhanced expression of interleukin-1α and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated protein 1 inileal tissues of cattle infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratu berculosis. Infection and Immunity, 71, 6479-6486. doi:10.1128/IAI.71.11.6479-6486.2003
[76] Koul, A., Herget, T., Klebl, B. and Ullrich, A. (2004) Interplay between mycobacteria and host signaling path ways. Nature Reviews, 2, 189-202. doi:10.1038/nrmicro840
[77] Chiang, S.K., Sommer, S., Aho, A.D., Kiupel, M., Colvin, C., Tooker, B. and Coussens, P.M. (2007) Relationship between Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratubercu losis, IL-1alpha, and TRAF1 in primary bovine monocyte-derived macrophages. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 116, 131-144. doi:10.1016/j.vetimm.2007.01.005
[78] Aldwell, F.E., Wedlock, D.N., Slobbe, L.J., Griffin, J.F., Buddle, B.M. and Buchan, G.S. (2001) In vitro control of Mycobacterium bovis by macrophages. Tuberculosis, 81, 115-123. doi:10.1054/tube.2000.0280
[79] Heinzen, R.A., Scidmore, M.A., Rockey, D.D. and Hack stadt, T. (1996) Differential interaction with endocytic and exocytic pathways distinguish parasitophorous vacuoles of Coxiella burnetii and Chlamydia trachomatis. Infection and Immunity, 64, 796-809.
[80] Gomes M. S., Paul S., Moreira A. L., Appelberg R., Rabinovitch M. and Kaplan G. (1999) Survival of Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium tuberculosis in acidified vacuoles of murine macrophages. Infection and Immunity, 67, 3199-3206.
[81] De Chastellier, C. and Berche, P. (1994) Fate of Listeria monocytogenes in murine macrophages: Evidence for si multaneous killing and survival of intracellular bacteria. Infection and Immunity, 62, 543-553.
[82] Read, R.C., Zimmerli, S., Broaddus, C., Sanan, D.A., Stephens, D.S. and Ernst, J.D. (1996) The (alpha2->8) linked polysialic acid capsule of group B Neisseria meningitides modifies multiple steps during interaction with human macrophages. Infection and Immunity, 64, 3210-3217.
[83] Kuehnel, M.P., Goethe, R., Habermann, A., Mueller, E., Rohde, M., Griffiths, G. and Valentin-Weigand, P. (2001) Characterization of the intracellular survival of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis: Phagosomal pH and fusogenicity in J774 macrophages compared with other mycobacteria. Cellular Microbiology, 3, 551-566. doi:10.1046/j.1462-5822.2001.00139.x
[84] Heinzen, R.A., Hackstadt, T. and Samuel, J.E. (1999) Developmental biology of Coxiella burnettii. Trends in Microbiology, 7, 149-154. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(99)01475-4 http://www.biomedcentral.com/pubmed/10217829
[85] Rockey, D.D. and Matsumoto, A. (2000) The chlamydial developmental cycle. In: Brun, Y.V. and Shimkets, L.J., Eds., Prokaryotic Development, American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC, 403-425.
[86] Sturgill-Koszycki, S., Schlesinger, P.H., Chakraborty, P., Haddix, P.L., Collins, H.L., Fok, A.K., Allen, R.D., Gluck, S.L., Heuser, J. and Russell, D.G. (1994) Lack of acidification in Mycobacterium phagosomes produced by ex clusion of the vesicular proton-ATPase. Science, 263, 678-681. doi:10.1126/science.8303277
[87] Sturgill-Koszycki, S., Schaible, U.E. and Russell, D.G. (1996) Mycobacterium-containing phagosomes are ac cessible to early endosomes and reflect a transitional state in normal phagosome biogenesis. The EMBO Journal, 15, 6960-6968.
[88] Small, P.L., Ramakrishnan, L. and Falkow, S. (1994) Remodeling schemes of intracellular pathogens. Science, 263, 637-639. doi:10.1126/science.8303269
[89] Garcia-del Portillo, F. and Finlay B.B. (1995) The varied lifestyles of intracellular pathogens within eukaryotic vacuolar compartments. Trends in Microbiology, 3, 373-380. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(00)88982-9
[90] Sinai, A.P. and Joiner, K.A. (1997) Safe haven: The cell biology of nonfusogenic pathogen vacuoles. Annual Re view of Microbiology, 51, 415-462. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.51.1.415
[91] Schaible, U.E., Sturgill-Koszycki, S., Schlesinger, P.H. and Russell, D.G. (1998) Cytokine activation leads to acidification and increases maturation of Mycobacterium avium-containing phagosomes inmurine macrophages. The Journal of Immunology, 160, 1290-1296.
[92] Raizman, E.A., Habteselassie, M.Y., Wu, C.C., Lin, T.L., Negron, M. and Turco, R.F. (2011) Leaching of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis in soil under in vitro conditions. Veterinary Medicine International, 2011, Article ID: 506239. doi:10.4061/2011/506239
[93] Salgado, M., Collins, M.T., Salazar, F., Kruze, J., B?lske, G., S?derlund, R., Juste, R., Sevilla, I.A., Biet, F., Tron coso, F. and Alfaro, M. (2011) Fate of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis after application of contaminated dairy cattle manure to agricultural soils. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 77, 2122-2129. doi:10.1128/AEM.02103-10
[94] Chiodini, R.J., van Kruiningen, H.J. and Merkal, R.S., (1984) Ruminant paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease): The current status and future prospects. The Cornell Veterinarian, 74, 218-262.
[95] Moravkova, M., Babak, V., Kralova, A., Pavlik, I. and Slana, I. (2012) Culture and quantitative IS900 real-time PCR-based analysis of the persistence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in a controlled dairy cow farm environment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 8, 6608-6614. doi:10.1128/AEM.01264-12
[96] Berghaus, R.D., Farver, T.B., Anderson, R.J., Jaravata, C.C. and Gardner, I.A., (2006) Environmental sampling for detection of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis on large California dairies. Journal of Dairy Science, 89, 963-970. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72161-0
[97] Norby, B., Fosgate, G.T., Manning, E.J., Collins, M.T. and Roussel, A.J. (2007) Environmental mycobacteria in soil and water on beef ranches: Association between presence of cultivable mycobacteria and soil and water physicochemical characteristics. Veterinary Microbiology, 124, 153-159. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.04.015
[98] Dhand, N.K., Eppleston, J., Whittington, R.J. and Toribio, J.A. (2009) Association of farm soil characteristics with ovine Johne’s disease in Australia. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 89, 110-120. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.02.017
[99] Pribylova, R., Slana, I., Kaevska, M., Lamka, J., Babak, V., Jandak, J. and Pavlik, I. (2011) Soil and plant contamination with Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuber culosis after exposure to naturally contaminated mouflon feces. Current Microbiology, 62, 1405-1410. doi:10.1007/s00284-011-9875-7
[100] Whittington, R.J., Marshall, D.J., Nicholls, P.J, Marsh, I.B. and Redacliff, L.A. (2004) Survival and dormancy of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in the en vironment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70, 2989-3004. doi:10.1128/AEM.70.5.2989-3004.2004
[101] Whittington, R.J., Marsh, I.B. and Reddacliff, L.A. (2005) Survival of Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculo sis in dam water and sediment. Applied and Environ mental Microbiology, 71, 5304-5308. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5304-5308.2005
[102] Pickup, R.W., Rhodes, G., Sidi-Boumedine, K., Bull, T.J., Weightman, A., Arnott, S. and Hermon-Taylor, J. (2005) Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in the catchment and water of the river Taff in South Wales, United Kingdom and its potential relationship to clustering of Crohn’s disease in the city of Cardiff. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71, 2130-2139. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.4.2130-2139.2005
[103] Jorgensen, J.B. (1977) Survival of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in slurry. Nordisk Veterinae Medicin, 29, 267-270.
[104] Olsen, J.E., Jorgensen, J.B. and Nansen, P. (1985) On the reduction of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in bovine slurry subjected to batch mesophilic or thermophilic an aerobic digestion Agricultural Wastes, 13, 273-280. doi:10.1016/0141-4607(85)90052-6
[105] Bolster, C.H., Cook, K.L., Haznedaroglu, B.Z. and Walter, S.L. (2008) The transport of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis through saturated aquifer materials. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 48, 307-312. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2008.02519.x
[106] Strahl, E.D., Gillaspy, G.E. and Falkinham, J.O. (2001) Fluorescent acid-fast microscopy for measuring phagocytosis of Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium in tracellulare, and Mycobacterium scrofulaceum by Tetra hymena pyriformis and their intracellular growth. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 4432-4439. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.10.4432-4439.2001
[107] Pickup, R.W., Rhodes, G., Bull, T.J., Arnott, S., Sidi Boumedine, K., Hurley, M. and Hermon-Taylor, J. (2006) Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in lake catchments, in river water abstracted for domestic use, and in effluent from domestic sewage treatment works: Diverse opportunities for environmental cycling and human exposure. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72, 4067-4077. doi:10.1128/AEM.02490-05
[108] Aboagye, G. and Rowe, M.T. (2011) Occurrence of My cobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in raw water and water treatment operations for the production of po table water. Water Research, 45, 3271-3278. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.03.029
[109] Falkinham III, J.O., Norton, C.D. and Le Chevallier, M.W. (2001) Factors influencing numbers of Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare and other mycobacteria in drinking water distribution systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 1225-1231. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.3.1225-1231.2001
[110] Wu, C.W., Schmoller, S.K., Bannantine, J.P., Eckstein, T.M., Inamine, J.M., Livesey, M., Albrecht, R. and Talaat, A.M. (2009) A novel cell wall lipopeptide is important for biofilm formation and pathogenicity of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Microbial Pathogenesis, 46, 222-230. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2009.01.010
[111] Johansen, T.B., Agdestein, A., Olsen, I., Nilsen, S.F., Holstad, G. and Djonne, B. (2009) Biofilm formation by Mycobacterium avium isolates originating from humans, swine and birds. BMC Microbiology, 9, 159. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-159
[112] Faille, C., Jullien, C., Fontaine, F., Bellon-Fontaine, M.-N., Slomianny C. and Benezech, T. (2002) Adhesion of Bacillus spores and Escherichia coli cells to inert surfaces: Role of surface hydrophobicity. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 48, 728-738. doi:10.1139/w02-063
[113] Cook, K.L., Britt, J.S. and Bolster, C.H. (2010) Survival of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in bio films on livestock watering trough materials. Veterinary Microbiology, 141, 103-109. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.08.013
[114] Tatchou-Nyamsi-Konig, J.A., Dague, E., Mullet, M., Duval, J.F.L., Gaboriaud, F. and Block, J.-C. (2008), Adhesion of Campylobacter jejuni and Mycobacterium avium onto polyethylene terephtalate (PET) used for bot tle waters. Water Research, 42, 4751-4760. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2008.09.009
[115] Soulsby, E.J.L. (1968) Helminths, arthropods and protozoa of domesticated animals. Tindall and Cassell Bailliere, London.
[116] Whittington, R.J., Lloyd, J.B. and Reddacliff, L.A. (2001) Recovery of Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis from nematode larvae cultured from the faeces of sheep with Johne’s disease. Veterinary Microbiology, 81, 273-279. doi:10.1016/S0378-1135(01)00345-5
[117] Anderson, R.C. (1992) Nematode parasites of vertebrates, their development and transmission. CAB International, Wallingford.
[118] Lloyd, J.B., Whittington, R.J., Fitzgibbon, C. and Dobson, R. (2001) Presence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in suspensions of ovine trichostrongylid larvae produced in faecal cultures artificially contaminated with the bacterium. Veterinary Record, 148, 261-263. doi:10.1136/vr.148.9.261
[119] Bottjer, K.P., Hirsh, D.C. and Slonka, G.F. (1978) Nema tospiroides dubius as a vector for Salmonella typhimurium. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 39, 151-153.
[120] Fischer, O., Matlova, L., Dvorska, L, Svastova, P., Bartl, J., Melicharek, I., Weston, R.T. and Pavlik, I. (2001) Diptera as vectors of mycobacterial infections in cattle and pigs. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 15, 208-211. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2915.2001.00292.x
[121] Holter, P. (1979) Effect of dung beetles (Aphodius spp.) and earthworms on the disappearance of cattle dung. Oikos, 32, 393-402. doi:10.2307/3544751
[122] Kazda, J. (2000) The ecology of the mycobacteria. 1st Edition, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4102-4
[123] Fischer, O.A., Matlova, L., Bartl, J., Dvorska, L, Svastova, P., du Maine, R., Melicharek, I. and Bartos, M. (2003) Earthworms (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae) and mycobacteria. Veterinary Microbiology, 91, 325-338. doi:10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00302-4
[124] Fischer, O.A., Matlova, L., Dvorska, L., Svastova, P. and Pavlik, I. (2003) Nymphs of the oriental cockroach (Blatta orientalis) as passive vectors of causal agents of avian tuberculosis and paratuberculosis. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 17, 145-150. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2915.2003.00417.x
[125] Fischer, O.A., Matlova, L., Dvorska, L., Svastova, P., Bartl, J., Weston, R.T. and Pavlik, I. (2004) Blowflies Calliphora vicina and Lucilia sericata as passive vectors of Mycobacteriumavium subsp. avium, M. a. paratuberculosis and M. a. hominissuis. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 18, 116-122. doi:10.1111/j.0269-283X.2004.00477.x
[126] Whan, L, Grant, I.R. and Rowe, M.T. (2006) Interaction between Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and environmental protozoa. BMC Microbiology, 6, 63. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-6-63
[127] White, C.I., Birtles, R.J., Wigley, P. and Jones, P.H. (2009) Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in free-living amoebae isolated from fields not used for grazing. Veterinary Record, 166, 401-402. doi:10.1136/vr.b4797
[128] Miltner, E.C. and Bermudez, L.E. (2000) Mycobacterium avium grown in Acanthamoeba castellanii is protected from the effects of antimicrobials. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 44, 1990-1994. doi:10.1128/AAC.44.7.1990-1994.2000
[129] Mura, M., Bull, T.J., Evans, H., Sidi-Boumedine, K., McMinn, L., Rhodes, G., Pickup, R. and Hermon-Taylor, J. (2006) Replication and long-term persistence of bovine and human strains of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis within Acanthamoeba polyphaga. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72, 854-859. doi:10.1128/AEM.72.1.854-859.2006
[130] Cirillo, J.D., Falkow, S., Tompkins, L.S. and Bermudez, L.E. (1997) Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence. Infection and Immunity, 65, 3759-3767.
[131] Whan, L. (2003) The incidence and persistence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Northern Ireland water supplies. PhD Thesis, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast.
[132] Barker, J. and Brown, M.R.W. (1994) Trojan horses of the microbial world: Protozoa and the survival of bactrial pathogens in the environment. Microbiology, 140, 1253-1259. doi:10.1099/00221287-140-6-1253
[133] Steinert, M., Birkness, K., White, E., Fields, B. and Quinn, F. (1998) Mycobacterium avium bacilli grow saprozoically in coculture with Acanthamoeba polyphaga and survive within cyst walls. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64, 2256-2261.

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.