Sedimentation in Mountain Streams: A Review of Methods of Measurement

Abstract

The goal of this review paper is to provide a list of methods and devices used to measure sediment accumulation in wadeable streams dominated by cobble and gravel substrate. Quantitative measures of stream sedimentation are useful to monitor and study anthropogenic impacts on stream biota, and stream sedimentation is measurable with multiple sampling methods. Evaluation of sedimentation can be made by measuring the concentration of suspended sediment, or turbidity, and by determining the amount of deposited sediment, or sedimentation on the streambed. Measurements of deposited sediments are more time consuming and labor intensive than measurements of suspended sediments. Traditional techniques for characterizing sediment composition in streams include core sampling, the shovel method, visual estimation along transects, and sediment traps. This paper provides a comprehensive review of methodology, devices that can be used, and techniques for processing and analyzing samples collected to aid researchers in choosing study design and equipment.

 

Share and Cite:

L. Hedrick, J. Anderson, S. Welsh and L. Lin, "Sedimentation in Mountain Streams: A Review of Methods of Measurement," Natural Resources, Vol. 4 No. 1, 2013, pp. 92-104. doi: 10.4236/nr.2013.41011.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] R. D. Judy Jr., P. N. Seely, T. M. Murray, S. C. Svirsky, M. R. Whitworth and L. S. Ischinger, “National Fisheries Survey, Volume I. Technical Report: Initial Findings,” US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington DC, 1982.
[2] United States Environmental Protection Agency, “National Water Quality Inventory: 1988 Report to Congress,” EPA Report 440490003, Washington DC, 1990.
[3] B. D. Richter, D. P. Braun. M. A. Mendelson and L. L. Master, “Threats to Imperiled Freshwater Fauna,” Conservation Biology, Vol. 11, No. 5, 1997, pp. 1081-1093. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96236.x
[4] United States Environmental Protection Agency, “National Water Quality Inventory: 1992 Report to Congress,” EPA Report 841R94001, Washington DC, 1994.
[5] P. J. Wood and P. D. Armitage, “Biological Effects of Fine Sediment in the Lotic Environment,” Environmental Management, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1997, pp. 203-217. doi:10.1007/s002679900019
[6] S. Entrekin, M. Evans-White, B. Johnson and E. Hagenbuch, “Rapid Expansion of Natural Gas Development Poses a Threat to Surface Waters,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, Vol. 9, No. 9, 2011, pp. 503-511. doi:10.1890/110053
[7] T. F. Waters, “Sediment in Streams: Sources, Biological Effects, and Control,” Monograph 7, American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, 1995.
[8] M. A. Brusven and K. V. Prather, “Influence of Stream Sediment on Distribution of Macrobenthos,” Journal of Entomological of Society British Columbia, Vol. 71, No. 1, 1974, pp. 25-32.
[9] D. A. Lemly, “Modification of Benthic Insect Communities in Polluted Streams: Combined Effects of Sedimentation and Nutrient Enrichment,” Hydrobiologia, Vol. 87, No. 3, 1982, pp. 229-245. doi:10.1007/BF00007232
[10] J. W. Burns, “Some Effects of Logging and Associated Road Construction on Northern California Streams,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 101, No. 1, 1972, pp. 1-16. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1972)101<1:SEOLAA>2.0.CO;2
[11] G. Lamberti and M. B. Berg, “Invertebrates and Other Benthic Features as Indicators of Environmental Change in Juday Creek, Indiana,” Natural Areas Journal, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1995, pp. 249-258.
[12] K. Wentworth, “A Scale of Grade and Class Terms for Clastic Sediments”, Journal of Geology, Vol. 30, No. 5, 1922, pp. 377-392. doi:10.1086/622910
[13] L. Fraley, “Methods of Measuring Fluvial Sediment,” Center for Urban Environmental Research and Education, University of Maryland, Baltimore, 2004.
[14] D. W. Chapman, “Critical Review of Variables Used to Define Effects of Fines in Redds of Large Salmonids,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 117, No. 1, 1988, pp. 1-21. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1988)117<0001:CROVUT>2.3.CO;2
[15] D. A. Hausle and D. W. Coble, “Influence of Sand in Redds on Survival and Emergence of Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis),” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 105, No. 1, 1976, pp. 57-63. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1976)105<57:IOSIRO>2.0.CO;2
[16] D. G. Argent and P. A. Flebbe, “Fine Sediment Effects on Brook Trout Eggs in Laboratory Streams,” Fisheries Research, Vol. 39, No. 3, 1999, pp. 253-262. doi:10.1016/S0165-7836(98)00188-X
[17] J. P. Hakala, “Factors Influencing Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Abundance in Forested Headwater Streams with Emphasis on Fine Sediment,” M.S. Thesis, West Virginia University, Morgantown, 2000.
[18] J. P. Potyodony and T. Hardy, “Use of Pebble Counts to Evaluate Fine Sediment Increase in Stream Channels,” Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 3, 1994, pp. 509-520. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1994.tb03309.x
[19] P. R. Kaufmann, P. Levine, E. G. Robinson, C. Seeliger and D. V. Peck, “Quantifying Physical Habitat in Wadeable Streams EPA/620/R-99/003,” US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, 1999.
[20] T. A. Wesche, D. W. Reiser, V. R. Hasfurther, W. A. Hubert and Q. D. Skinner, “New Technique for Measuring Fine Sediment in Streams,” North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1989, pp. 234-238. doi:10.1577/1548-8675(1989)009<0234:NTFMFS>2.3.CO;2
[21] United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Quality Criteria for Water 1986, EPA 440/5-86-001,” Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Washington DC, 1996.
[22] R. L. Beschta, “Suspended Sediment and Bedload,” In: F. R. Hauer and G. A. Lambert, Eds., Methods in Stream Ecology, Academic Press, San Diego, 1996, pp. 123-144.
[23] United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Monitoring Water Quality, EPA 841-B-97-003,” Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Washington DC, 1997.
[24] W. F. McNeil and W. H. Ahnell, “Success of Pink Salmon Spawning Relative to Size of Spawning Bed Materials,” US Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report—Fisheries Number 469, Washington DC, 1964.
[25] W. S. Platts, R. J. Torquemada, M. L. McHenry and C. K. Graham, “Changes in Salmon Spawning and Rearing Habitat from Increased Delivery of Fine Sediment to the South Fork Salmon River, Idaho,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 118, No. 3, 1989, pp. 274-283. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1989)118<0274:CISSAR>2.3.CO;2
[26] J. C. Wellman, D. L. Combs and S. B. Cook, “Long-Term Impacts of Bridge and Culvert Construction or Replacement on Fish Communities and Sediment Characteristics of Streams,” Journal of Freshwater Ecology, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2000, pp. 317-328. doi:10.1080/02705060.2000.9663750
[27] R. T. Grost, W. A. Hubert and T. A. Wesche, “Field Comparison of Three Devices Used to Sample Substrate in Small Streams,” North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1991, pp. 347-351. doi:10.1577/1548-8675(1991)011<0347:FCOTDU>2.3.CO;2
[28] D. S. Hames, B. Conrad, A. Pleus and D. Smith, “Field Comparison of the McNeil Sampler with Three ShovelBased Methods Used to Sample Spawning Substrate Composition in Small Streams,” Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission TFW Ambient Monitoring Program Report, 1996.
[29] G. S. Eaglin and W. A. Hubert, “Effects of Logging and Roads on Substrate and Trout in Streams of the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming,” North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, pp. 844-846. doi:10.1577/1548-8675(1993)013<0844:MBEOLA>2.3.CO;2
[30] N. R. Bond, “A Simple Device for Estimating Rates of Fine Sediment Transport along the Bed of Shallow Streams,” Hydrobiologia, Vol. 468, No. 1-3, 2002, pp. 155-161. doi:10.1023/A:1015270824574
[31] L. B. Hedrick, S. A. Welsh and J. D. Hedrick, “A New Sampler Design for Measuring Sedimentation in Streams,” North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2005, pp. 238-244. doi:10.1577/M03-236.1
[32] D. Schuett-Hames, R. Conrad, A. Pleus and M. Henry, “TFW Monitoring Program Method Manual for the Salmonid Spawning Gravel Composition Survey,” Department of Natural Resources under the Timber, Fish, and Wildlife Agreement, Washington DC, 1999.
[33] M. Christensen, A. Nakajima and A. Baun, “Toxicity of Water and Sediment in a Small Urban River (Store Vejlea, Denmark),” Environmental Pollution, Vol. 144, No. 2, 2006, pp. 621-625. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2006.01.032
[34] J. Muskatirovic, “Analysis of Bedload Transport Characteristics of Idaho Streams and Rivers,” Earth Surface and Landforms, Vol. 33, No. 11, 2008, pp. 1757-1768. doi:10.1002/esp.1646
[35] J. Warburton, “Observations of Bed Load Transport and Channel Bed Changes in a Proglacial Mountain Stream,” Artic and Alpine Research, Vol. 24, No. 3, 1992, pp. 195-203. doi:10.2307/1551657
[36] H. E. Berkman and C. F. Rabeni, “Effects of Siltation on Stream Fish Communities,” Environmental Biology of Fishes, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1987, pp. 285-294. doi:10.1007/BF00004881
[37] R. B. Painter, “The Measurement of Bed Load Movement in Rivers,” Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, Vol. 76, 1972, pp. 291-294.
[38] T. E. Lisle, “Sediment Transport and Resulting Deposition in Spawning Gravels, North Coastal California,” Water Resources Research, Vol. 25, No. 6, 1989, pp. 1303-1319. doi:10.1029/WR025i006p01303
[39] J. S. Welton and M. J. H. Ladle, “Two Sediment Trap Designs for Use in Small Rivers and Streams,” Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 24, No. 3, 1979, pp. 588-592.
[40] S. Lachance and M. Dube, “A New Tool for Measuring Sediment Accumulation with Minimal Loss of Fines,” North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2004, pp. 303-310. doi:10.1577/M02-087
[41] Z. D. Dewson, A. B. W. James and R. G. Death, “Stream Ecosystem Functioning under Reduced Flow Conditions,” Ecological Applications, Vol. 17, No. 6, 2007, pp. 1797-1808. doi:10.1890/06-1901.1
[42] W. H. Graf, “Hydraulics of Sediment Transport,” Water Resources Publications, LLC, Highlands Ranch, 1994.
[43] E. J. Helley and W. Smith, “Development and Calibration of a Pressure-Difference Bedload Sampler,” US Geological Survey Open-File Report 8037-01, 1971, 18 p.
[44] S. E. Ryan and W. W. Emmet, “The Nature of Flow and Sediment Movement in Little Granite Creek near Bondurant, Wyoming,” General Technical Report RMRS-GTR90, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden, 2002, 48 p.
[45] S. E. Ryan, L. S. Porth and C. A. Troendle, “Coarse Sediment Transport in Mountain Streams in Colorado and Wyoming, USA,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2005, pp. 269-288. doi:10.1002/esp.1128
[46] S. E. Ryan and C. A. Troendle, “Measuring Bedload with Handheld Samplers in Coarse-Grained Mountain Channels,” Streams Systems Technology Center, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, 1999, 8 p.
[47] D. Childers, “Field Comparisons of Six Pressure-Difference Bedload Samplers in High-Energy Flow,” US Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 92-4068, 1999, 59 p.
[48] D. W. Hubbell, H. H. Stevens, J. V. Skinner and J. P. Beverage, “Recent Refinements in Calibrating Bedload Samplers,” Water Forum 81, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, Vol. 1, 1981, pp. 128-140.
[49] Y. Lui, F. Metivier, J. Gaillardet, B. Ye, P. Meunier, C. Narteau, E. Lajeunesse, T. Han and L. Malverti, “Erosion Rates Deduced from Seasonal Mass Balance along an Active Braided River in Tianshan,” Solid Earth Discussion, Vol. 3, 2011, pp. 541-589. doi:10.5194/sed-3-541-2011
[50] K. Bunte, S. R. Abt, J. P. Potyondy and S. E. Ryan, “Measurement of Coarse Gravel and Cobble Transport Using Portable Bedload Traps,” Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 9, 2004, pp. 879-893. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2004)130:9(879)
[51] D. Childers, D. L. Kresch, S. A. Gustafson, T. J. Randle, J. T. Melena and B. Cluer, “Hydrologic Data Collected during the 1994 Lake Mills Drawdown Experiment, Elwha River, Washington,” US Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigation Report 99-4215, 2000.
[52] W. W. Emmett, “Measurement of Bedload in Rivers,” Erosion and Sediment Transport Measurements IAHS Publication No. 133, Proceedings of the Florence Symposium, June 1981, 13 p.
[53] W. J. Walkotten, “An Improved Technique for Freeze Sampling Streambed Sediments,” US Forest Service Research Note PNW-281, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, 1976, 11 p.
[54] F. H. Everest, C. E. McLemore and J. F. Ward, “An Improved Tri-Tube Cryogenic Gravel Sampler,” US Forest Service Research Note PNW-350, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, 1980, 6 p.
[55] K. Bunte and S. R. Abt, “Sampling Surface and Subsurface Particle-Size Distributions in Wadable Gravel and Cobble-Bed Streams for Analyses in Sediment Transport, Hydraulics, and Streambed Monitoring,” General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-74, US Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, 2001.
[56] T. E. Lisle and R. E. Eads, “Methods to Measure Sedimentation of Spawning Gravels,” Research Note PSW-411, United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Berkley, Albany, 1991.
[57] M. G. Wolman, “A Method of Sampling Coarse RiverBed Material,” Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 35, No. 6, 1954, pp. 951-956. doi:10.1029/TR035i006p00951
[58] K. J. Collier and J. M. Quinn, “Land-Use Influences Macroinvertebrate Community Response Following a Pulse Disturbance,” Freshwater Biology, Vol. 48, No. 8, 2003, pp. 1462-1481. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2427.2003.01091.x
[59] L. A. Golden and G. S. Springer, “Channel Geometry, Median Grain Size, and Stream Power in Small Mountain Streams,” Geomorphology, Vol. 78, No. 1-2, 2006, pp. 64-76. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.031
[60] P. Kusnierz and A. Welch, “The Montana Department of Environmental Quality Sediment Assessment Method: Considerations, Physical and Biological Parameters, and Decision Making,” Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Helena, 2011.
[61] H. J. Moi and G. B. Pasternack, “Relationships between Mesoscale Morphological Units, Stream Hydraulics and Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) Spawning Habitat on the Lower Yuba River, California,” Geomorphology, Vol. 100, No. 3-4, 2008, pp. 527-548. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.02.001
[62] G. M. Kondolf, “Application of the Pebble Count: Reflections on Purpose, Method, and Variants,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association, Vol. 33, No. 1, 1997, pp. 79-87. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1997.tb04084.x
[63] S. D. Longing, “Ecological Studies of Benthic Macroinvertebrates for Determining Sedimentation Impacts in Chattahoochee National Forest Streams,” Doctoral Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, 2006.
[64] K. Bunte, K. W. Swingle and S. R. Abt, “Guidelines for Using Bedload Traps in Coarse-Bedded Mountain Streams: Construction, Installation, Operation, and Sample Processing,” Stream Notes, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, 2007.
[65] S. A. Bryce, G. A. Lomnicky and P. R. Kaufmann, “Protecting Sediment-Sensitive Aquatic Species in Mountain Streams through the Application of Biologically Based Streambed Criteria,” Journal of the North American Benthological Society, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2010, pp. 657-672. doi:10.1899/09-061.1
[66] M. Kasai, T. Marutani and G. Brierley, “Channel Bed Adjustments Following Major Aggradation in a Steep Headwater Setting: Findings from Oyabu Creek, Kyushu, Japan,” Geomorphology, Vol. 62, No. 3-4, 2004, pp. 199-215. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.03.001
[67] L. B. Hedrick, S. A. Welsh and J. T. Anderson, “Influences of High Flow Events on a Stream Channel Altered by Construction of a Highway Bridge—A Case Study,” Northeastern Naturalist, Vol. 16, No. 3, 2009, pp. 375-394. doi:10.1656/045.016.n306
[68] J. D. Heitke, E. J. Archer, D. D. Dugaw, B. A. Bouwes, E. A. Archer, R. C. Henderson and J. L. Kershner, “Effectiveness Monitoring for Streams and Riparian Areas: Sampling Protocol for Stream Channel Attributes,” PACFISH/ INFISH Biological Opinion Effectiveness Monitoring Program (PIBO-EMP) Staff Multi-federal Agency Monitoring Program, Logan, 2006, 54 p.
[69] J. L. Kershner, E. K. Archer, M. Coles-Rithchie, E. R. Cowley, R.C. Henderson, K. Kratz, C. M. Quimby, D. L. Turner, L. C. Ulmer and M. R. Vinson, “Guide to Effective Monitoring of Aquatic and Riparian Resources,” General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-121, US Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, 2004, 57 p.

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.