Language-Trained Animals: A Window to the “Black Box”

Abstract

Animals have to process quantity of information in order to take decisions and adapt their behaviors to their physical and social environment. They have to remember previous events (learning), to cope with their internal (motivational and emotional) states and to display flexible behavioral responses. From a human point of view it is quite impossible to access all those information, not only because of the sensorial channels used that can vary but also because all the processing phase occurs in the “black box” and non-human animals are not able to express verbally what they think, feel or want. Though useful information might lie in the “collected data” (animal mind), extracting them into insightful knowledge with human-accessible form (clear meaning, no interpretation) presents a demanding and sophisticated undertaking. Several scientists decided to trained different individuals from several species (apes, dolphins, grey parrots, dogs) in order to teach them a new communicative system that they could share with us. Here, the different studies (techniques and species used) are presented, their constrains but also the main findings.

Share and Cite:

P. Franck, "Language-Trained Animals: A Window to the “Black Box”," International Journal of Intelligence Science, Vol. 2 No. 4A, 2012, pp. 149-159. doi: 10.4236/ijis.2012.224020.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] R. M. Seyfarth, D. L. Cheney and P. Marler, “Vervet Monkeys Alarm Calls: Semantic Communication in a Free Ranging Primate,” Animal Behaviour, Vol. 28, No. , 1980, pp. 1070-1094.
[2] R. M. Seyfarth and D. L. Cheney, “Production, Usage, and Comprehension in Animal Vocalizations,” Brain & Language, Vol. 115, No. , 2010, pp. 92-100.
[3] B. F. Skinner, “Verbal Behavior,” Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1957.
[4] A. Vouloumanos and H. M. Gelfand, “Infant Perception of Atypical Speech Signals,” Developmental Psychology, 2012, Advance Online Publication.
[5] E. Jarvis, “Brains and Birdsong,” Elsevier University Press, 2004.
[6] F. Péron, L. Rat-Fischer, L. Nagle and D. Bovet, “Unwilling Versus Unable: Do Grey Parrots Understand Human Intentional Actions?” Interaction Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2010, pp. 428-441.
[7] F. Péron, C. Chardard, L. Nagle and D. Bovet, “Do African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus) Know What a Human Experimenter Does and Does Not See?” Behavioral Processes, Vol. 87, No. , 2011, pp. 237-240.
[8] N. Giret, A. Miklosi, M. Kreutzer and D. Bovet, “Use of Experimenter Given Cues in African Gray Parrots (Psittacus erithacus) ,” Animal Cognition, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2009, pp. 1-10.
[9] F. Peron, “The Psychology of Problem Solving in Psittacids,” In: S. Helie, Ed., The psychology of Problem-Solving: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2012.
[10] R. A. Gardner, B. T. Gardner and T. Van Cantfort, “Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees,” State University of New York Press, Albany, 1989.
[11] H. S. Terrace, L. A. Petitto, R. J. Sanders and T. G. Bever, “Can an Ape Create a Sentence?” Science, Vol. 206, No. , 1979, pp. 891-902.
[12] F. G. Patterson, “The Gestures of a Gorilla: Language Acquisition in Another Pongid,” Brain & Language, Vol. 5, No. , 1978, pp. 72-97.
[13] I. M. Pepperberg, “In Search of King Solomon’s Ring: Cognitive and Communicative Studies of Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus),” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, Vol. 59, No. , 2002, pp. 54-67.
[14] I. M. Pepperberg, “Allospecific Referential Speech Acquisition in Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus): Evidence for Multiple Levels of Avian Vocal Imitation,” In: K. Dautenhahn and C. Nehaniv, Eds., Imitation in Animals and Artifacts, MIT Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 109-131.
[15] D. Premack, “Words: What Are They, and Do Animals Have Them?” Cognition, Vol. 37, No. , 1990, pp. 197-212.
[16] D. M. Rumbaugh, “Language Learning by a Chimpanzee: The Lana Project,” Academic Press, New York, 1977.
[17] L. M. Herman and P. H. Forestell, “Reporting Presence or Absence of Named Objects by a Language-Trained Dolphin,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, Vol. 9, No. , 1985, pp. 667-668.
[18] B. Hare and M. Tomasello, “Human-Like Social Skills in Dogs?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol. 9, No. , 2005, pp. 439-444.
[19] B. Hare, M. Brown, C. Williamson and M. Tomasello, “The domestication of social cognition in dogs”, Science, Vol. 298, 2002, pp. 1634–1636.
[20] P. Pongrácz, A. Miklósi, A. Dóka and V. Csányi, “Successful application of video-projected human images for signalling to dogs”, Ethology, Vol. 109, 2003, pp. 809-821.
[21] C. J. Warden and L. H. Warner, “The sensory capacities and intelligence of dogs, with a report on the ability of the noted dog “Fellow” to respond to verbal stimuli”, Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 3, 1928, pp. 1–28.
[22] J. Kaminski, J. Call and J. Fischer, “Word learning in a domestic dog: evidence for “fast mapping”, Science, Vol. 304, 2004, pp. 1682–1683.
[23] B. Hare, J. Call and M. Tomasello, “Communication of food location between human and dog (Canis familiaris)”, Evolution of Communication, Vol. 2, 1998, pp. 137–159.
[24] A. Miklósi, J. Topál and V. Csányi, (2000) “Intentional behaviour in dog–human communication: an experimental analysis of “showing” behaviour in the dog”, Animal Cognition, Vol. 3, 2000, pp. 159–166.
[25] A. Miklósi, J. Topál and V. Csányi, (2004) “Comparative social cognition: what can dogs teach us?”, Animal Behaviour, Vol. 67, 2004, pp. 995–1004.
[26] J. McKinley and T. D. Sambrook, “Use of human-given cues by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and horses (Equus caballus)”, Animal Cognition, Vol. 3, 2000, pp. 13–22.
[27] K. Soproni, A. Miklósi, J. Topál and V. Csányi, “Comprehension of human communicative signs in pet dogs (Canis familiaris)”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 115, 2001, pp. 122–126.
[28] C. Molnár, P. Pongrácz, A. Dóka and A. Miklósi, “Can humans discriminate between dogs on the base of the acoustic parameters of barks?”, Behavioural Processes, Vol. 73, 2006, pp. 76–83.
[29] S. Yin and B. McCowan, “Barking in dogs: context specificity individual specification”, Animal Behaviour, Vol. 68, 2004, pp. 343–355.
[30] J. Call, J. Brauer, J. Kaminski and M. Tomasello, “Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are sensitive to the attentional state of humans”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 117, 2003, pp. 257–263.
[31] M. Gacsi, A. Miklósi, O. Varga, J. Topál and V. Csányi, “Are readers of our face readers of our minds? Dogs (Canis familiaris) show situation-dependent recognition of human’s attention”, Animal Cognition, Vol. 7, 2004, pp. 144–153.
[32] J. Brauer, J. Call and M. Tomasello, “Visual perspective taking in dogs (Canis familiaris) in the presence of a barrier”, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Vol. 88, 2004, pp. 299-317.
[33] W. N. Kellogg and L. A. Kellog, “The ape and the child”, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993.
[34] C. Hayes, “The ape in our house”, Harper, New York, 1951.
[35] B. T. Gardner and R. A. Gardner, “Two-way communication with an infant chimpanzee” In A. M. Schrier and F. Stollnitz, Eds., Behavior of non-human primates, Academic Press, New York, 1971, pp. 117-184.
[36] B. T. Gardner and R. A. Gardner, “Evidence for sentence constituents in the early utterances of child and chimpanzee” Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 104, 1975, pp. 244-267.
[37] W. A. Hillix and D. M. Rumbaugh, “Animal bodies, human minds: ape, dolphin, and parrot language skills”, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, 2004.
[38] R. Fouts and S. T. Mills, “Next of kin”, William morrow & Co., New York, 1997.
[39] D. Premack and A. J. Premack, “The mind of an ape”, Norton, New York, 1983.
[40] L. M. Herman, D. G. Richards and J. P. Wolz, “Comprehension of sentences by bottlenosed dolphins”, Cognition, Vol. 16, 1984, pp. 129-219.
[41] D. G. Richards, J. P. Wolz and L. M. Herman “Vocal mimicry of computer-generated sounds and vocal labeling of objects by a bottlenosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 98, 1984, pp. 10-28.
[42] R. J. Schusterman and K. Krieger, “California sea lions are capable of semantic comprehension”, Psychological Record, Vol. 34, 1984, pp. 3–23.
[43] R. J. Schusterman and K. Krieger, “Artificial language comprehension and size transposition by a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus)”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 100, 1986, pp. 348–355.
[44] R. J. Schusterman, C. Reichmuth Kastak and D. Kastak, “The cognitive sea lions: Meaning and memory in the lab and in nature”, In: M. Bekoff, C. Allen and G. Burghardt, Eds., The cognitive animal: Empirical and theoretical perspectives on animal cognition, MIT Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 217–228.
[45] I. M. Pepperberg, “Functional vocalizations by an African Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus)”, Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, Vol. 55, 1981, pp. 139–160.
[46] I. M. Pepperberg, “The Alex studies”, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1999.
[47] N. Giret, F. Péron, L. Nagle, M. Kreutzer and D. Bovet, “Spontaneous functional categorization of vocal imitations and over-extension in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)”, Behavioural Processes, Vol. 82, No. 3, 2009, pp. 244-248.
[48] N. Giret, F. Péron, J. Lindová, L. Tichotová, L. Nagle, M. Kreutzer, F. Tymr and D. Bovet, “Referential learning of French and Czech labels in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus): different methods yield to contrasting results”, Behavioural Processes, Vol. 85, No. 2, 2010, pp. 90-98.
[49] M. Cabanac, “Do birds experience sensory pleasure?” Evolutionary psychology, Vol.7, No. 1, 2009, pp 40-47
[50] I. M. Pepperberg, R. M. Sandefer, D. Noel and C. P. Ellsworth, “Vocal learning in the Grey Parrot: Effect of species identity and number of trainers”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 114, 2000, pp. 371–380.
[51] I. M. Pepperberg, “Vocal learning in African Grey parrots: Effects of social interaction”, Auk, Vol. 111, 1994, pp. 300–313.
[52] I. M. Pepperberg, “Social influences on the acquisition of human-based codes in parrots and nonhuman primates”, In: C. T. Snowdon and M. Hausberger, Eds., Social influences on vocal development, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997, pp. 157–177.
[53] I. M. Pepperberg and M. A. McLaughlin, “Effect of avian–human joint attention on allospecific vocal learning by Grey parrots”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 110, 1996, pp. 286–297.
[54] I. M. Pepperberg, J. R. Naughton and P. A. Banta , “Allospecific vocal learning by Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus): A failure of videotaped instruction under certain conditions”, Behavioural Processes, Vol. 42, 1998, pp. 139–158.
[55] I. M. Pepperberg and S. R. Wilkes, “Lack of referential vocal learning from LCD video by Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus)”, Interaction Studies, Vol. 5, 2004, pp. 75–97.
[56] A. P. Rossi and C. Ades, “A dog at the keyboard: using arbitrary signs to communicate requests”, Animal Cognition, Vol. 11, 2008, pp. 329–338.
[57] C. Savalli, M. M. Brand?o, T. S. Domingues, M. A. Honòrio and C. Ades, “Dog-human communication through a keyboard: is human attentional state relevant?” Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Application and Research, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009, p. 55.
[58] E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, J. Murphy, R. Sevcik, K. Brakke, S. Williams and D. Rumbaugh, “Language comprehension in ape and child”, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Vol. 58, No. 3–4, 1993.
[59] E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, “Ape language: From conditioned response to symbol”, Columbia University Press, New York, 1986.
[60] R. A. Sevcik and E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, “Language comprehension and use by great apes” Language and Communication, Vol. 14, 1994, pp. 37-58.
[61] R. S. Fouts and D. H. Fouts, “Chimpanzees’ Use of Sign Language”, In: P. Cavalieri and P. Singer, Eds., The Great Ape Project, St. Martin’s Griffin, New York, 1993, pp. 28-41.
[62] E, Kako, “Elements of syntax in the systems of three language-trained animals”, Animal Learning & Behavior, Vol. 27, 1999, pp 1-14.
[63] H. Lyn, “Mental representation of symbols as revealed by vocabulary errors in two bonobos (Pan paniscus)”, Animal Cognition, Vol. 10, 2007, pp. 461–475.
[64] D. Ramos and C. Ades, “Two-Item Sentence Comprehension by a Dog (Canis familiaris)”, PLoS ONE Vol. 7, No. 2, 2012, e29689.
[65] J. W. Pilley and A. K. Reid, “Border collie comprehends object names as verbal referents”, Behavioural Processes, Vol. 86, 2011, pp. 184–195.
[66] L. M. Herman, A. A. Pack and P. Morrel-Samuels, “Representational and conceptual skills of dolphins”, In: H. R. Roitblat, L. M. Herman and P. Nachtigall, Eds., “Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives”, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillside, 1993, pp. 273-298.
[67] H. Lyn and E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, “Observational word learning in two bonobos (Pan paniscus) ostensive and non-ostensive contexts”, Language and Communication, Vol. 20, 2000, pp. 255-273.
[68] I. M. Pepperberg, “Referential mapping: Attaching functional significance to the innovative utterances of an African Grey parrot”, Applied Psycholinguistics, Vol. 11, 1990, pp. 23–44.
[69] I. M. Pepperberg, “Grey parrots do not always “parrot”: Roles of imitation and phonological awareness in the creation of new labels from existing vocalizations”, Language Science, Vol. 29, 2007, pp. 1–13.
[70] I. M. Pepperberg, “Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) vocal learning: Creation of new labels from existing vocalizations and issues of imitation”, LACUS Forum, Vol. 34, 2009, pp. 21–30.
[71] D. Reiss and B. McCowan, “Spontaneous vocal mimicry and production by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): evidence for vocal learning”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 107, 1993, pp. 301-312.
[72] D. M. Rumbaugh and T. V. Gill, “Lana’s Acquisition of Language Skills”, In: D.M. Rumbaugh, Ed., Language Learning by a Chimpanzee: The Lana Project, Academic Press, New York, 1977, pp. 165-192.
[73] I. M. Pepperberg, K. J. Brese and B. J. Harris, “Solitary sound play during acquisition of English vocalizations by an African Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus): Possible parallels with children’s monologue speech”, Applied Psycholinguistics, Vol. 12, 1991, pp. 151–177.
[74] H. Lyn, B. Franks and E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, “Precursors of morality in the use of the symbols “good” and “bad” in two bonobos (Pan paniscus) and a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)”, Language & Communication, Vol. 28, 2008, pp. 213–224.
[75] E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, D. Rumbaug and S. Boysen, “Do apes use language?”, American Scientist, Vol. 68, 1980, pp. 49-61.
[76] A.R., Gardner, B.T., Gardner, “A vocabulary test for chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)”. Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 92, 1984, pp 381–404.
[77] I.M., Pepperberg, “Cognition in an African gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus): further evidence for comprehension of categories and labels”. Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 104, 1990, pp 41–52.
[78] I.M., Pepperberg, “Acquisition of a relative class concept by an African gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus): discriminations based on relative size”. Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 105, 1991, pp 286–294.
[79] I. M., Pepperberg, “Evidence for numerical competence in an African Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus)”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 108, 1994, pp. 36–44.
[80] I.M., Pepperberg, J.D., Gordon, “Number comprehension by a grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), including a zero-like concept”. Journal of Comparative Psycholology, Vol. 119, 2005, pp 197–209.
[81] T., Inoue, T., Hasegawa, S., Takara, B., Lukáts, M., Mizuno, S., Aou, “Categorization of biologically significant objects, food and gender, in rhesus monkeys: I. Behavioral study. Research Support, Vol. 61, 2008, pp 70–78.
[82] J.M., Mandler, “Thought before language”. Trends in Cognitive. Science, Vol. 8, 2004, pp 508–513.
[83] E., Ameel, B., Malt, G., Storms, “Object naming and later lexical development: from baby bottle to beer bottle”. Journal of Memory and Language, Vol. 58, 2008, pp 262–285
[84] I.M., Pepperberg “Ordinality and inferential abilities of a grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Journal of comparative Psychology, Vol. 120, 2006, pp 205–216.
[85] I.M., Pepperberg “Grey parrot numerical competence: a review”, Animal Cognition, Vol. 9, 2006, pp 377–391
[86] I. M. Pepperberg, J. Vicinay and P. Cavanagh, “Processing of the Müller-Lyer illusion by a Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus)”, Perception, Vol. 37, 2008, pp. 765–781.
[87] A. Kilian, S. Yaman, L. von Fersen and O. Güntürkün, “A bottlenose dolphin discriminates visual stimuli differing in numerosity”, Learning and behavior, Vol. 31, 2003, pp. 133-142.
[88] S. T. Boysen, G. G. Berntson, M. B. Hannan and J. T. Cacioppo, “Quantity-based interference and symbolic representation in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)”, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, Vol. 22, 1996, pp. 76-86.
[89] R. S. Fouts, D. H. Fouts and T. E. Van Cantfort, “The Infant Loulis Learns Signs from Cross-Fostered Chimpanzees”, In: R. A. Gardner, B. T. Gardner and T. E. Van Cantfort, eds., Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees, State University of New York Press, New York, 1989, pp. 280-292.
[90] C. R. Menzel CR, “Unprompted recall and reporting of hidden objects by a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) after extended delays”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 113, 1999, pp. 426–434.
[91] I. M. Pepperberg, “An interactive modeling technique for acquisition of communication skills: Separation of ‘labeling’ and ‘requesting’ in a psittacine subject”, Applied Psycholinguistics, Vol. 9, 1988, pp. 59–76.
[92] I. M. Pepperberg “Insightful” string-pulling in Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) is affected by vocal competence. Animal Cognition, Vol. 7, 2004, pp 263–266.
[93] N. Giret, A. Albert, M. Kreutzer and D. Bovet “Context-related vocalizations in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)”, Acta Ethologica, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2012, pp 39-46.
[94] R.S Fouts and D.H. Fouts, “Chimpanzees’use of sign language”, In P. Cavalieri & P. Singer (eds.), The Great Ape Project New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1993, pp. 28-41
[95] H. Davis and D. Balfour, (Eds.) “The inevitable bond”, Cambridge university Press, Cambridge, 1992.
[96] E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh and R. Lewin, “Kanzi”, Wiley, New York, 1994.
[97] D., Dwyer, chapter 9, “Comparisons of signing and nonsigning apes” unpublished

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.