Using a Parafoil Kite for Measurement of Variations in Particulate Matter—A Kite-Based Dust Profiling Approach

Matthias Reiche, Roger Funk, Zhuodong Zhang, Carsten Hoffmann, Yong Li, Michael Sommer

.

DOI: 10.4236/acs.2012.21006                

Abstract

This paper reports on the use of a kite-based system for measuring low-altitude particulate matter (PM) concentrations over grassland in Inner Mongolia. The motivation came from PM-concentration measurements at heights below 3 m over non-erodible surfaces which showed constant concentrations and made flux calculations relatively uncertain. One aim was the quantification of wind-driven matter fluxes across ecosystem boundaries, where the relevant layer can be assumed at heights below 100 m. Compared to other measurement techniques (e.g. LIDAR, towers and airborne systems) kite-based systems represent an inexpensive, highly flexible research tool which is well-suited for application in remote sites. The basis of the introduced system is a 4 m² Parafoil kite which has enough lifting capacity to carry equipment of about 6 kg at wind velocities between 3 ms^-1 to nearly 20 ms^-1. A self-adjusting platform was constructed to balance moves and to carry a portable Environmental Dust Monitor (EDM), anemometer and a GPS receiver. So, all parameters necessary for a vertical profile of dust fluxes could be measured. In the first flights the applied kite-based dust profiling system (KIDS) was examined according to general technical application problems. Firstly, the influence of diverse surface characteristics, the flying condition and height-stability was tested. The result suggests that surface characteristics in general have a higher influence than the optimal wind velocity, which ranged from 9 ms^-1 to 17 ms^-1. Secondly, uncertainties in the measured data were quantified and assessed. The uncertainties in wind velocity measurements due to motion in horizontal and vertical direction were not higher than 0.45% - 0.65% and 1.8% - 2.2% during the kite ascent. The outcome of the study illustrates the suitable application of KIDS for low-altitude measurements in remote sites.

Keywords

Grassland; Wind Erosion; Particular Matter; PM₁; PM_2.5; PM₁₀; PM-Ratio

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	R. Arimoto, “Eolian Dust and Climate: Relationships to Sources, Tropospheric Chemistry, Transport and Deposition,” Earth-Science Reviews, Vol. 54, No. 1, 2001, pp. 29-42. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00040-X
[2]	D. Yaalon, “Comments on the Source, Transportation and Deposition of Saharan Dust to Southern Europe,” Journal of Arid Environments, Vol. 36, No. 1, 1997, pp. 193-196. doi:10.1006/jare.1996.0231
[3]	P. Pease, P. Vatche, N. Tchakerian and N. Tindale, “Aerosols over the Arabian Sea: Geochemistry and Source Areas for Aeolian Desert Dust,” Journal of Arid Environments, Vol. 39, No. 3, 1998, pp. 477-496. doi:10.1006/jare.1997.0368
[4]	J. Lim and Y. Chun, “The Characteristics of Asian Dust Events in Northern Asia during the Springtime from 1993 to 2004,” Global and Planetary Change, Vol. 52, 2006, pp. 231-247. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.02.010
[5]	T. Y. Tanaka and M. A. Chiba, “A Numerical Study of Contributions of Dust Source Regions to the Global Dust Budget,” Global and Planetary Change, Vol. 52, No. 1-4, 2006, pp. 88-104. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.02.002
[6]	W. Yanfen, H. Zuozhong, H. Dehua and H. Jianmei, “Study on Dust Deposition in Xilin River Basin,” Acta Phytoecologica Sinica, Vol. 24, No. 6, 2004, pp. 693-696.
[7]	B. Li, “Grassland Degradation and Its Prevention Measures in China’s North Area,” Science Press, Beijing, 1999, pp. 383-391.
[8]	X. Zhao, H. Zhao, X. Zuo, Y. Luo, S. Wang, Z. Kou and H. Qu, “Restoration of Desertified Grassland and Challenges in Northern China for the Possibility of Sustained Desertification Reversion,” Multifunctional Grassland in a Changing World, Guangdong People’s Publishing House, Guangzhou, Vol. 1, 2008, pp. 720-724.
[9]	C. Hoffmann, R. Funk, R. Wieland, Y. Li and M. Sommer, “Effects of Grazing and Topography on Dust Flux and Deposition in the Xilingele Grassland, Inner Mongolia,” Journal of Arid Environments, Vol. 72, No. 5, 2008, pp. 792-807. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2007.09.004
[10]	T. Sandstrom and B. Forsberg, “Desert Dust and Unrecognized Source of Dangerous Air Pollution?” Epidemiology, Vol. 19, No. 6, 2008, pp. 808-809. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e31818809e0
[11]	J. Cao, S. Lee, X. Zheng, X. Ho, X. Zhang, H. Guo, J. C. Chow and H. Wang, “Characterization of Dust Storms to Hong Kong in April 1998,” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2003, pp. 213-229. doi:10.1023/A:1023202926292
[12]	C. Liu, C. Young and Y. Lee, “Influence of Asian Dust Storm on Air Quality in Taiwan,” Science of Total Environment, Vol. 388, No. 2-3, 2006, pp. 884-897. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.03.039
[13]	H. In and S. Park, “A Simulation of Long-Range Transport of Yellow Sand Observed in April 1998 in Korea,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 36, No. 26, 2008, pp. 4173-4187. doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00361-8
[14]	B. Lee, H. Lee and N. Jun, “Analysis of Regional and Temporal Characteristics of PM10 during an Asian Dust Episode in Korea,” Chemosphere, Vol. 63, No. 7, 2006, pp. 1106-1115. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.09.001
[15]	H. Lee, T. Tanaka, M. Chiba and Y. Igarashi, “Long Range Transport of Asian Dust from Dust Storms and Its Impact on Japan,” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2003, pp. 231-343. doi:10.1023/A:1023254910362
[16]	C. Zdanowicz, G. Hall, J. Vaive, Y. Amelin, J. Percival, I. Girand, P. Biscaye and A. Bory, “Asian Dust Fall in the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon, Canada,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 70, No. 14, 2006, pp. 3493-3507. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2006.05.005
[17]	D. W. Fryrear, “A Field Dust Sampler,” Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 41, No. 2, 1986, pp. 117- 120.
[18]	J.-L. Rajot, “Wind Blown Sediment Mass Budget of Sahelian Village Land Units in Niger,” Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, Vol. 172, 2001, pp. 523-531. doi:10.2113/172.5.523
[19]	M. Sow, D. Goossens and J.-L. Rajot, “Calibration of the MDCO Dust Collector and of Four Versions of the Inverted Frisbee Dust Deposition Sampler,” Geomorphology, Vol. 82, No. 3-4, 2006, pp. 360-375. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.05.013
[20]	C. Mückel, N. Eresmaa, J. R?s?nen and A. Karppinen, “Retrieval of Mixing Height and Dust Concentration with Lidar Ceilometer,” Boundary Layer Meteorology, Vol. 124, No. 1, 2007, pp. 117-128. doi:10.1007/s10546-006-9103-3
[21]	D. Van der Kamp, I. G. McKendry, M. Wong and R. Stull, “Lidar Ceilometer Observation and Modelling of a Fireworks Plume in Vancouver, British Columbia,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 42, No. 30, 2008, pp. 7174- 7178. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.06.047
[22]	Z. Dong, D. Man, W. Luo, G. Qian, J. Wang, M. Zhao, S. Liu, G. Zhu and Z. Zhu, “Horizontal Aeolian Sediment Flux in the Minqin Area, a Major Source of Chinese Dust Storm,” Geomorphology, Vol. 116, No. 1, 2010, pp. 58- 66. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.10.008
[23]	B. B. Balsley, J. B. Williams, G. W. Tyrrell and C. L. Balsley, “Atmospheric Research Using Kites: Here We Go Again!,” Bulletin American Meteorological Society, Vol. 73, No. 1, 1992, pp. 17-30. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1992)073<0017:ARUKHW>2.0.CO;2
[24]	C. Hart, “Kites: An Historical Survey,” 2nd Edition, Mount Vernon, New York, 1982.
[25]	G. J. Jenkins, “Kite meteorology,” Weather, Vol. 26, 1981, pp. 294-301.
[26]	A. S. Smedman, K. Lundin, H. Bergstr?m and U. H?gstrom, “A Precision Kite or Balloon-Borne Mini-Sonde for Wind and Turbulence Measurements,” Boundary- Layer Meteorology, Vol. 56, No. 3, 1991, pp. 295-307. doi:10.1007/BF00120425
[27]	B. B. Balsley, M. L. Jensen and R. G. Frehlich, “The Use of State-of-Art Kites for Profiling the Lower Atmosphere,” Boundary-Layer Meteorology, Vol. 87, No. 1, 1998, pp. 1-25. doi:10.1023/A:1000812511429
[28]	S. Haefner, “Kite Aerial Photography,” 2003. http://scotthaefner.com/kap/equipment/ ?page=rig
[29]	S. M. Smith, J. Chandler and J. Rose, “High Spatial Resolution Data Acquisition for the Geosciences: kite Aerial Photography,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 34, No. 1, 2008, pp. 155-161. doi:10.1002/esp.1702
[30]	J. Boike and K. Yoshikawa, “Mapping of Periglacial Geomorphology Using Kite/Balloon Aerial Photography,” Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2003, pp. 81-85. doi:10.1002/ppp.437
[31]	B. Owen, “An Archaeologist Uses Kite Aerial Photography,” 2006. http://bruceowen.com/kap/kap.htm
[32]	R. A. Farrow and J. E. Dowes, “Method of Using Kites to Carry Tow Nets in Upper Air for Sampling Migrating Insects and Its Application to Radar Entomology,” Bulletin Environment Research, Vol. 74, 1984, pp. 87-95. doi:10.1017/S0007485300009950
[33]	S. A. Mims and F. M. Mims, “Fungal Spores Are Transported Long Distances in Smoke from Biomass Fires,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 38, No. 5, 2004, pp. 651- 655. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2003.10.043
[34]	M. J. Varley, “The Use of Kites to Investigate Boundary Layer Meteorology,” Meteorology Application, Vol. 4, 1997, pp. 151-159. doi:10.1017/S1350482797000431
[35]	B. B. Balsley, J. W. Birks, M. L. Jensen and K. G. Knapp, “Vertical Profiling of the Atmosphere Using High-Tech Kites,” Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 28, No. 9, 1994, pp. 422-427. doi:10.1021/es00058a002
[36]	H. A. McGowan, I. F. Owens and A. P. Sturman, “Thermal and Dynamic Characteristics of Alpine Lake Breezes, Lake Tekapo, New Zealand,” Boundary-Layer Meteorology, Vol. 76, No. 1, 1994, pp. 3-24. doi:10.1007/BF00710888
[37]	G. McTanish, G. Y. Chan, H. A. McGowan, J. Leys and K. Tews, “The 23rd October 2002 Dust Storm in Eastern Australia: Characteristics and Meteorological Conditions,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 39, No. 7, 2005, pp. 1227-1236. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.10.016
[38]	H. A. McGowan and A. Clark, ”A Vertical Profile of PM10 Dust Concentration Measured during a Regional Dust Event Identified by MODIS Terra Western Queensland, Australia,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 113, No. 2, 2003, Article ID: F02S03.
[39]	NASA (National Aerodynamics and Space Administration), “Kites,” 2011. http://www.grc. nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ kit1.html
[40]	G. Sànchez, “Dynamics and Control of Single-Line Kites,” The Aeronautical Journal, Vol. 9, 2006, pp. 615-621.
[41]	J. Stevenson, K. Alexander and P. Lynn, “Kite Performance Testing by Flying in a Circle,” The Aeronautical Journal, Vol. 9, 2006, pp. 605-614.
[42]	O. Deiss, F. Lackmann, C. Hilling and F. Kameier, “Influence of Turbulence in Wind Measurement,” 2001. http://ifs.muv.fh-duesseldorf.de/Veroeffentlichungen/veroeffentlichung_lackmann_deiss.pdf
[43]	E. I. Kaganov and A. M. Yaglom, “Errors in Wind-Speed Measurements by Rotation Anemometers,” Boundary- Layer Meteorology, Vol. 10, 1976, pp. 10-34. doi:10.1007/BF00218722
[44]	C. Hoffmann, R. Funk, M. Sommer and Y. Li, “Temporal Variations in PM10 and Particle Size Distribution during Asian Dust Storms in Inner Mongolia,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 42, No. 36, 2008, pp. 8422-8431. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.08.014
[45]	L. J. Hagen, S. VanPelt, T. M. Zobeck and A. Retta, “Dust Deposition Near an Eroding Source Field,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2007, pp. 281-289. doi:10.1002/esp.1386