Mucormycosis: A Review on Environmental Fungal Spores and Seasonal Variation of Human Disease

Rima I. El-Herte, Tania A. Baban, Souha S. Kanj

Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon.

DOI: 10.4236/aid.2012.23012                

Abstract

Mucormycosis is on the rise especially among patients with immunosuppressive conditions. There seems to be more cases seen at the end of summer and towards early autumn. Several studies have attempted to look at the seasonal variations of fungal pathogens in variou indoor and outdoor settings. Only two reports, both from the Middle East, have addressed the relationship of mucormycosis in human disease with climate conditions. In this paper we review, the relationship of indoor and outdoor fungal particulates to the weather conditions and the reported seasonal variation of human cases.

Keywords

Mucormycosis; Seasonal Variation; Fungal Air Particulate Concentration; Mucor; Rhizopus; Rhinocerebral

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	G. Lamaris, R. Ben-Ami, R. Lewis, G. Chamilos, G. Samonis and D. Kontoyiannis, “Increased virulence of Zygomycetes Organisms Following Exposure to Voriconazole: A Study Involving Fly and Murine Models of Zygomycosis,” The Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 199, No. 9, 2009, pp. 1399-1406. doi:10.1086/597615
[2]	M. Al-Ajam, A. R. Bizri, J. Mokhbat, J. Weedon and L. Lutwick, “Mucormycosis in the Eastern Mediterranean: A Seasonal Disease,” Epidemiology & Infection, Vol. 134, No. 2, 2006, pp. 341-346. doi:10.1017/S0950268805004930
[3]	T. Shpitzer, N. Keller, M. Wolf, A. Goldschmied-Reouven, G. Bahar, I. Bahar, J. Kronenberg, R. Feinmesser and Y. Talmi, “ Seasonal Variations in Rhino-Cerebral Mucor Infection,” Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology, Vol. 114, No. 9, 2005, pp. 695-698.
[4]	C. Bartzokas, “Relationship between the Metereological Conditions and the Air-Borne Fungal Flora of the Athens Metropolitan Area,” Mycopathologia, Vol. 57, No. 1, 1975, pp. 35-38. doi:10.1007/BF00431176
[5]	M. Calvo, J. Guarro, G. Suarez and C. Ramírez, “Air-Borne Fungi in the Air of Barcelona (Spain). IV. Various Isolated Genera,” Mycopathologia, Vol. 71, No. 2, 1980, pp. 119-123. doi:10.1007/BF00440618
[6]	B. Herrero, “Weekly Variation of Fungal Colonies in the Atmosphere of Palencia (Spain) Throughout the Year 1992,” Journal of Investigational Allergology and Clinical Immunology, Vol. 7, No. 6, 1997, pp. 611-618.
[7]	T. Ceter and N. Pinar, “Atmospheric Concentration of Fungus Spores in Ankara and the Effect of Meteorological Factors in 2003 Period,” Bulletin of Microbiology, Vol. 43, No. 4, 2009, pp. 627-638.
[8]	A. Asan, S. Sarica Okten,and B. Sen, “Airborne and Soilborne Microfungi in the Vicinity Hamitabat Thermic Power Plant in Kirklareli City (Turkey), Their Seasonal Distributions and Relations with Climatological Factors,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 164, No. 1-4, 2010, pp. 221-231. doi:10.1007/s10661-009-0887-8
[9]	G. Colakoglu, “Indoor and Outdoor Mycoflora in the Different Districts of the City of Istanbul (Turkey),” Indoor and Built Environment, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2004, pp. 91-100.
[10]	M. Oliveria, H. Ribeiro and I. Abreu,” Annual variation of Fungal Spores in Atmosphere of Porto: 2003,” Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2005, pp. 309-315.
[11]	P. Ren, T. Jankun and B. Leaderer, “Comparisons of Seasonal Fungal Prevalence in Indoor and Outdoor Air and in House Dusts of Dwellings in One Northeast American County,” Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Vol. 9, No. 6, 1999, pp. 560-568. doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500061
[12]	B. Shelton, K. Kirkland, W. Flanders and G. Morris, “Profiles of Airborne Fungi in Buildings and Outdoor Environments in the United States,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 68, No. 4, 2002, pp. 1743-1753. doi:10.1128/AEM.68.4.1743-1753.2002
[13]	U. Kakde, H. Kakde and A. Saoji, “Seasonal Variation of Fungal Propagules in a Fruit Market Environment, Nagpur (India),” Aerobiologia, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2001, pp. 177-182. doi:10.1023/A:1010849522964
[14]	V. Stejskal, J. Hubert, A. Kubatova and M. Vanova, “Fungi Associated with Rodent Feces in Stored Grain Environment in the Czech Republic,” Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection, Vol. 112, No. 1, 2005, pp. 98-102.
[15]	F. Cabafies, M. Abarca, M. Bragulat and G. Castella, “Seasonal Study of the Fungal Biota of the Fur of Dogs,” Mycopathologia, Vol. 133, No. 1, 1996, pp. 1-7. doi:10.1007/BF00437092
[16]	S. Jand and M. Gupta,” Dermatomycosis in Dogs,” Mycoses, Vol. 32, No. 2, 1989, pp. 104-105. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.1989.tb02213.x
[17]	S. Saidi, P. Das and A. Sikdar,” Keratinophilic Fungi of Poultry and Their Environment in India,” Journal of Comparative Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2000, pp. 49-55.
[18]	A. Hyvarinen, T. Meklin, A. Vepsalainen and A. Nevalainen, “Fungi and Actinobacteria in Moisture-Damaged Building Materials—Concentrations and Diversity,” International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, Vol. 49, No. 1, 2002, pp. 27-37.
[19]	M. Roden, T. Zaoutis, W. Buchanan, T. Knudsen, T. Sarkisova, R. Schaufele, M. Sein, T. Sein, C. Chiou, J. Chu, D. Kontoyiannis and T. Walsh, “Epidemiology and Outcome of Zygomycosis: A Review of 929 Reported Cases,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, Vol. 41, No. 5, 2005, pp. 634-653. doi:10.1086/432579
[20]	J. Patino, D. Castro, A. Valencia and P. Morales,” Necrotizing Soft Tissue Lesions after a Volcanic Cataclysm,” World Journal of Surgery, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1991, pp. 240-247. doi:10.1007/BF01659059
[21]	B. Snell and K. Tavakoli,” Necrotizing Fasciitis Caused by Apophysomyces Elegans Complicating Soft-Tissue and Pelvic Injuries in a Tsunami Survivor from Thailand,” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Vol. 119, No. 1, 2007, pp. 448-449. doi:10.1097/01.prs.0000233624.34950.f8
[22]	D. Andresen, A. Donaldson, L. Choo, A. Knox, M. Klaassen, C. Ursic, L. Vonthethoff, S. Krilis and P. Konecny, “Multifocal Cutaneous Mucormycosis Complicating Polymicrobial Wound Infections in a Tsunami Survivor from Sri Lanka,” Lancet, Vol. 365, No. 9462, 2005, pp. 876-878. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71046-1
[23]	T. Meklin, T. Reponen, C. McKinstry, S. Cho, S. Grinshpun, A. Nevalainen, A. Veps?l?inen, R. Haugland, G. Lemasters and S. Vesper, “Comparison of Mold Concentrations Quantified by MSQPCR in Indoor and Outdoor Air Sampled Simultaneously,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 382, No. 1, 2007, pp. 130-134. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.03.031
[24]	E. Spreghini, F. Orlando, D. Giannini and F. Barchiesi, “In Vitro and in Vivo Activities of Posaconazole against Zygomycetes with Various Degrees of Susceptibility,” Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Vol. 65, No. 10, 2010, pp. 2158-2163. doi:10.1093/jac/dkq276
[25]	S. Hammond, R. Bialek, D. Milner, E. Petschnigg, L. Baden and F. Marty,” Molecular Methods to Improve Diagnosis and Identification of Mucormycosis,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, Vol. 49, No. 6, 2011, pp. 2151-2153. doi:10.1128/JCM.00256-11