Pollution Characteristics of PM2.5 during a Typical Haze Episode in Xiamen, China

Abstract

In this study, mass concentrations and chemical compositions of fine particles, mass concentrations of coarse particles, light extinction, and meteorological parameters in the atmosphere ofXiamenwere presented and analyzed to study the chemical and optical characteristics of a typical haze episode from Dec 25, 2010 to Jan 1, 2011. The major chemical compositions of PM2.5, such as water soluble inorganic ions (WSIIs), carbonaceous fractions (mainly composed of organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC)), and elements were determined. The results showed that with the typical haze episode process, the concentrations of PM2.5 mass, WSIIs, OC, EC, and TE first increased and then decreased. The average concentrations of PM2.5 mass in the stages of Before Haze, During Haze, and After Haze were (88.80 ± 19.97), (135.41 ± 36.20), and (96.35 ± 36.26) μg/m3, respectively. The corresponding average concentrations of secondary organic carbon (SOC) were 6.72, 8.18, and 10.39 μg/m3, accounting for 46.5%, 27.0%, and 61.0% of OC, respectively. S42- , NO3-, and NH4+ were three major WSIIs species, accounting for 31.4%, 26.0%, and 12.1% of total WSIIs. The major elements in PM2.5 were S, K, Fe, Zn, Pb, Ti, and Mn, covering 97.9% of the total elements, while the percentage of the other ten elements was only 2.1%. The average value of light extinction coefficients (bext) was 371.0 ±147.1 Mm-1 during the typical haze episode. The average percentage contributions to bext were 39.3% for organic mass, 19.9% for elemental carbon, 16.0% for ammonium sulfate, 13.0% for coarse mass, and 11.8% for ammonium nitrate.

Share and Cite:

F. Zhang, J. Chen, T. Qiu, L. Yin, X. Chen and J. Yu, "Pollution Characteristics of PM2.5 during a Typical Haze Episode in Xiamen, China," Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, Vol. 3 No. 4, 2013, pp. 427-439. doi: 10.4236/acs.2013.34044.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] China Meteorological Administration, “The Specifications for the Earth’s Surface Meteorological Observation,” 1979. (in Chinese)
[2] W. L. Chameides, H. Yu, S. C. Liu, M. Bergin, X. Zhou, L. Mearns, G. Wang, C. S. Kiang, R. D. Saylor, C. Luo, Y. Huang, A. Steiner and F. Giorgi, “Case Study of the Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols and Regional Haze on Agriculture: An Opportunity to Enhance Crop Yields in China through Emission Controls?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 96, No. 24, 1999, pp. 13626-13633. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.24.13626
[3] K. Okada, M. Ikegami, Y. Zaizen, Y. Makino, J. B. Jensen and J. L. Gras, “The Mixture State of Individual Aerosol Particles in the 1997 Indonesian Haze Episode,” Journal of Aerosol Science, Vol. 32, No. 11, 2001, pp. 1269-1279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-8502(01)00062-3
[4] A. K. Yadav, K. Kumar, A. Kasim, M. P. Singh, S. K. Parida and M. Sharan, “Visibility and Incidence of Respiratory Diseases during the 1998 Haze Episode in Brunei Darussalam,” Pure and Applied Geophysics, Vol. 160, No. 1-2, 2003, pp. 265-277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-003-8777-4
[5] L. W. A. Chen, J. C. Chow, B. G. Doddridge, R. R. Dickerson, W. F. Ryan and P. K. Mueller, “Analysis of a Summertime PM2.5 and Haze Episode in the Mid-Atlantic Region,” Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Vol. 32, No. 11, 2003, pp. 946-956. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1080/10 473289.2003. 10466240
[6] C. M. Kang, H. S. Lee, B. W. Kang, S. K. Lee and Y. Sunwoo, “Chemical Characteristics of Acidic Gas Pollutants and PM2.5 Species during Hazy Episodes in Seoul, South Korea,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 38, No. 28, 2004, pp. 4749-4760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. atmosenv. 2004.05.007
[7] Y. Sun, G. Zhuang, A. Tang, Y. Wang and Z. An, “Chemical Characteristics of PM2.5 and PM10 in Haze-Fog Episodes in Beijing,” Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 40, No. 10, 2006, pp. 3148-3155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es051533g
[8] J. H. Tan, J. C. Duan, K. B. He, Y. L. Ma, F. K. Duan, Y. Chen and J. M. Fu, “Chemical Characteristics of PM2.5 during a Typical Haze Episode in Guangzhou,” Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 6, 2009, pp. 774-781. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(08)62340-2
[9] L. K. Huang, C. S. Yuan, G. Z. Wang and K. Wang, “Chemical Characteristics and Source Apportionment of PM10 during a Brown Haze Episode in Harbin, China,” Particuology, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2011, pp. 32-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.partic.2010.07.022
[10] J. G. Watson, “Visibility: Science and Regulation,” Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Vol. 52, No. 6, 2002, pp. 628-713. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2002.10470813
[11] N. Englert, “Fine Particles and Human Health: A Review of Epidemiological Studies,” Toxicology Letters, Vol. 149, No. 1-3, 2004, pp. 235-242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2003.12.035
[12] S. Cormier, S. Lomnicki, W. Backes and B. Dellinger, “Origin and Health Impacts of Emissions of Toxic ByProducts and Fine Particles from Combustion and Thermal Treatment of Hazardous Wastes Mater,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 114, No. 6, 2006, pp. 810-817. http://dx. doi.org/ 10.1289/ehp.8629
[13] S. W. See, Y. H. Wang and R. Balasubramanian, “Contrasting Reactive Oxygen Species and Transition Metal Concentrations in Combustion Aerosols,” Environmental Research, Vol. 103, No. 3, 2007, pp. 317-324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2006.08.012
[14] C. S. Christoforou, L. G. Salmon, M. P. Hannigan, P. A. Solomon and G. R. Cass, “Trends in Fine Particle Concentration and Chemical Composition in Southern California,” Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Vol. 50, No. 1, 2000, pp. 43-53. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1080/10473289. 2000.10463985
[15] Y. J. Kim, K. W. Kim, S. D. Kim, B. K. Leed and J. S. Han, “Fine Particulate Matter Characteristics and Its Impact on Visibility Impairment at Two Urban Sites in Korea: Seoul and Incheon,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 40, No. 2, 2006, pp. 593-605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.11.076
[16] Y. C. Chan, R. W. Simpson, G. H. Mctainsh, P. D. Vowles, D. D. Cohen and G. M. Bailey, “Source Apportionment of Visibility Degradation Problems in Brisbane (Australia) Using the Multiple Linear Regression Techniques,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 33, No. 19, 1999, pp. 3237-3250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00091-6
[17] W. C. Malm and J. L. Hand, “An Examination of the Physical and Optical Properties of Aerosols Collected in the Improve Program,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 41, No. 16, 2007, pp. 3407-3427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.12.012
[18] S. K. Friedlander, “Smoke, Dust, and Haze: Fundamentals of Aerosol Dynamics,” 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 2000.
[19] Y. Wang, G. S. Zhuang, X. Y. Zhang, K. Huang, C. Xu, A. H. Tang, J. M. Chen and Z. S. An, “The Ion Chemistry, Seasonal Cycle, and Sources of PM2.5 and TSP Aerosol in Shanghai,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 40, No. 16, 2006, pp. 2935-2952. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. atmosenv. 2005.12.051
[20] W. J. Zhang, G. S. Zhuang, J. H. Guo, D. Q. Xu, W. Wang, D. Baumgardner, Z. Y. Wu and W. Yang, “Sources of Aerosol as Determined from Elemental Composition and Size Distributions in Beijing,” Atmospheric Research, Vol. 95, No. 2-3, 2010, pp. 197-209. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j. atmosres.2009.09.017
[21] J. X. Gu, Z. P. Bai, W. F. Li, L. P. Wu, A. X. Liu, H. Y. Dong and Y. Y. Xie, “Chemical Composition of PM2.5 during Winter in Tianjin, China,” Particuology, Vol. 9, No. 3, 2011, pp. 215-221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.partic.2011.03.001
[22] Xiamen Environmental Protection Bureau, “The Environmental Quality Bulletin of Xiamen 2010,” 2011. (in Chinese)
[23] F. W. Zhang, L. L. Xu, J. S. Chen, Y. K. Yu, Z. C. Niu and L. Q. Yin, “Chemical Compositions and Extinction Coefficients of PM2.5 in Peri-Urban of Xiamen, China, during June 2009-May 2010,” Atmospheric Research, Vol. 106, 2012, pp. 150-158. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j. atmosres. 2011.12.005
[24] M. E. Birch and R. A. Cary, “Elemental Carbon-Based Method for Monitoring Occupational Exposures to Particulate Diesel Exhaust: Methodology and Exposure Issues,” Analyst, Vol. 121, No. 9, 1996, pp. 1183-1190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/an9962101183
[25] G. H. Zhu and G. F. Wang, “Investigation of the Particulate Derived from Indigenous Zinc Smelting Using PIXE Analytical Technique,” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B, Vol. 136-138, No. 1-4, 1998, pp. 966-969.
[26] IMPROVE, “Spatial and Seasonal Patterns and Temporal Variability of Haze and Its Constituents in the United States,” Report V, 2006.
[27] IMPROVE, “Spatial and Seasonal Patterns and Temporal Variability of Haze and Its Constituents in the United States,” Report IV, 2011.
[28] W. C. Malm and D. E. Day, “Estimates of Aerosol Species Scattering Characteristics as a Function of Relative Humidity,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 35, No. 16, 2001, pp. 2845-2860. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00077-2
[29] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China, “Ambient Air Quality Standards (GB3095-2012),” 2012. (in Chinese)
[30] J. H. Seinfeld and S. N. Pandis, “Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: from Air Pollution to Climate Change,” 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2006.
[31] S. N. Pandis, R. A. Harley, G. R. Cass and J. H. Seinfeld, “Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation and Transport,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 26, No. 13, 1992, pp. 2269-2282. http://dx. doi.org/10. 1016/0960-1686(92)90358-R
[32] B. J. Turpin and J. J. Huntzicker, “Identification of Secondary Organic Aerosol Episodes and Quantitation of Primary and Secondary Organic Aerosol Concentrations during SCAQS,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 29, No. 23, 1995, pp. 3527-3544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(94)00276-Q
[33] J. C. Chow, J. G. Watson, Z. Lu, D. H. Lowenthal, C. A. Frazier and P. A. Solomon, “Descriptive Analysis of PM2.5 and PM10 at Regionally Representative Locations during SJVAQS/AUSPEX,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 30, No. 12, 1996, pp. 2079-2112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(95)00402-5
[34] K. Na, A. A. Sawant, C. Song and D. R. Cocker, “Primary and Secondary Carbonaceous Species in the Atmosphere of Western Riverside County, California,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 38, No. 9, 2004, pp. 1345-1355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2003.11.023
[35] L. M. Castro, C. A. Pio, R. M. Harrison and D. J. T. Smith, “Carbonaceous Aerosol in Urban and Rural European Atmospheres: Estimation of Secondary Organic Carbon Concentrations,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 33, No. 17, 1999, pp. 2771-2781. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00331-8
[36] S. H. Chu, “Stable Estimate of Primary OC/EC Ratios in the EC Tracer Method,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 39, No. 8, 2005, pp. 1383-1392. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j. atmosenv. 2004.11.038
[37] J. J. Schauer, M. J. Kleeman, G. R. Cass and B. R. T. Simoneit, “Measurement of Emissions from Air Pollution Sources. 5. C1-C32 Organic Compounds from GasolinePowered Motor Vehicles,” Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 36, No. 6, 2002, pp. 1169-1180. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1021/es0108077
[38] Y. J. Chen, G. R. Zhi, Y. L. Feng, J. M. Fu, J. L. Feng, G. Y. Sheng and B. R. T. Simoneit, “Measurements of Emission Factors for Primary Carbonaceous Particles from Residential Raw-Coal Combustion in China,” Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 33, No. 20, 2006, pp. L20815.1-L20815.4.
[39] Y. X. Zhang, M. Shao, Y. H. Zhang, L. M. Zeng, L. Y. He, B. Zhu, Y. J. Wei and X. L. Zhu, “Source Profiles of Particulate Organic Matters Emitted from Cereal Straw Burnings,” Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2007, pp. 167-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(07)60027-8
[40] S. W. See and R. Balasubramanian, “Chemical Characteristics of Fine Particles Emitted from Different Gas Cooking Methods,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 42, No. 39, 2008, pp. 8852-8862. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.atmosenv. 2008.09.011
[41] J. C. Chow, E. M. Fujita, J. G. Watson, Z. Lu, D. R. Lawson and L. L. Ashbaugh, “Evaluation of Filter-Based Aerosol Measurements during the 1987 Southern California Air Quality Study,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1994, pp. 49-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00546199
[42] K. B. He, F. M. Yang, Y. L. Ma, Q. Zhang, X. H. Yao, C. K. Chan, S. Cadle, T. Chan and P. Mulawa, “The Characteristics of PM2.5 in Beijing, China,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 35, No. 29, 2001, pp. 4959-4970. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00301-6
[43] M. Hu, Y. H. Ling, Y. H. Zhang, M. Wang, Y. P. Kim and K. C. Moon, “Seasonal Variation of Ionic Species in Fine Particles at Qingdao, China,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 36, No. 38, 2002, pp. 5853-5859. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00581-2
[44] G. H. Wang, L. M. Huang, S. X. Gao, S. T. Gao and L. C. Wang, “Characterization of Water-Soluble Species of PM10 and PM2.5 Aerosols in Urban Area in Nanjing, China,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 36, No. 8, 2002, pp. 1299-1307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00550-7
[45] R. Arimoto, R. A. Duce, D. L. Savoie, J. M. Prospero, R. Talbot, J. D. Cullen, U. Tomza, N. F. Lewis and B. J. Ray, “Relationships among Aerosol Constituents from Asia and the North Pacific during Pem-West A,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 101, No. D1, 1996, pp. 2011-2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95JD01071
[46] N. Kaneyasu, S. Ohta and N. Murao, “Seasonal Variation in the Chemical Composition of Atmospheric Aerosols and Gaseous Species in Sapporo, Japan,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 29, No. 13, 1995, pp. 1559-1568. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(94)00356-P
[47] D. Poppe, M. Wallasch and J. Zimmermann, “The Dependence of the Concentration of OH on Its Precursors under Moderately Polluted Conditions: A Model Study,” Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1993, pp. 61-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00696625
[48] W. R. Pierson, W. W. Brachaczek and D. E. Mckee, “Sulfate Emissions from Catalyst Equipped Automobiles on the Highway,” Journal of Air Pollution Control Association, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1979, pp. 255-257. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1979.10470790
[49] S. Ohta and T. Okita, “A Chemical Characterization of Atmospheric Aerosol in Sapporo,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1990, pp. 815-822. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0960-1686(90)90282-R
[50] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China, “The Background Value of Elements in Soil in China,” 1990. (in Chinese).
[51] J. M. Pacyna, A. Semb and J. E. Hanssen, “Emission and Long-Range Transport of Trace Metals in Europe,” Tellus B, Vol. 36, No. 3, 1984, pp. 163-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j. 1600-0889.1984. tb00238.x
[52] M. Zheng, Y. Cheng, L. M. Zeng and Y. H. Zhang, “Developing Chemical Signatures of Particulate Air Pollution in the Pearl River Delta Region, China,” Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 23, No. 7, 2011, pp. 1143-1149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(10)60526-8
[53] X. Querol, A. Alastuey, S. Rodriguez, F. Plana, C. R. Ruiz, N. Cots, G. Massagué and Q. Puig, “PM10 and PM2.5 source apportionment in the Barcelona Metropolitan area, Catalonia, Spain,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 35, No. 36, 2001, pp. 6407-6419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00361-2
[54] E. Manoli, D. Voutsa and C. Samara, “Chemical Characterization and Source Identification/Apportionment of Fine and Coarse Air Particles in Thessaloniki, Greece,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 36, No. 6, 2002, pp. 949-961. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00486-1
[55] Y. Song, S. D. Xie, Y. H. Zhang, L. M. Zeng, L. G. Salmon and M. Zheng, “Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in Beijing Using Principal Component Analysis/Absolute Principal Component Scores and UNMIX,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 372, No. 1, 2006, pp. 278-286. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.scitotenv. 2006.08.041
[56] J. O. Nriagu and J. M. Pacyna, “Quantitative Assessment of Worldwide Contamination of Air, Water and Soils by Trace Metals,” Nature, Vol. 333, 1988, pp. 134-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/333134a0
[57] H. Z. Tian, Y. Wang, Z. G. Xue, K. Cheng, Y. P. Qu, F. H. Chai and J. M. Hao, “Trend and Characteristics of Atmospheric Emissions of Hg, As, and Se from Coal Combustion in China, 1980-2007,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions, Vol. 10, 2010, pp. 11905-11919. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-10-20729-2010
[58] J. Tao, K. F. Ho, L. G. Chen, L. H. Zhu, J. L. Han and Z. C. Xu, “Effect of Chemical Composition of PM2.5 on Visibility in Guangzhou, China, 2007 Spring,” Particuology, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2009, pp. 68-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.partic.2008.11.002
[59] H.-C. Cheung, T. Wang, K. Baumann and H. Guo, “Influence of Regional Pollution Outflow on the Concentrations of Fine Particulate Matter and Visibility in the Coastal Area of Southern China,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 39, No. 34, 2005, pp. 6463-6474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. atmosenv. 2005.07.033
[60] F. W. Zhang, J. P. Zhao, J. S. Chen, Y. Xu and L. L. Xu, “Pollution Characteristics of Organic and Elemental Carbon in PM2.5 in Xiamen, China,” Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 23, No. 8, 2011, pp. 1342-1349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(10)60559-1

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.