The Physical Principles Elucidate Numerous Atmospheric Behaviors and Human-Induced Climatic Consequences

Abstract

The principles that govern the operation of an open and a closed evaporator are relevant for the understanding of the open and “closed” Earth’s atmospheric behaviors, and are thus described. In these greenhouses, the water is included, otherwise the heat and mass balances do not match. It is incorrect to consider the radiation as the only energy transfer factor for an atmospheric warming. Demonstrations show that when the greenhouse effect and the cloud cover increase, the evaporation and the wind naturally decrease. Researchers did not understand why reductions in surface solar radiation and pan evaporation have been simultaneous with increased air temperature, cloudiness and precipitation for the last decades. It is an error to state that the evaporation increases based solely on the water and/or air temperatures increase. Also, researchers did not comprehend why in the last 50 years the clouds and the precipitation increased while the evaporation decreased and they named such understanding as the “evaporation paradox”, while others “found” “the cause” violating the laws of thermodynamics, but more precipitation is naturally conciliatory with less evaporation. The same principle that increases the formation of clouds may cause less rainfall. Several measurements confirm the working principles of greenhouses described in this paper. The hydrological cycle is analyzed and it was also put in form of equation, which analyses have never been done before. The human influence alters the velocity of the natural cycles as well as the atmospheric heat and mass balances, and the evaporation has not been the only source for the cloud formation. It is demonstrated that the Earth’s greenhouse effect has increased in some places and this proof is not based only on temperatures.

Share and Cite:

E. Sartori, "The Physical Principles Elucidate Numerous Atmospheric Behaviors and Human-Induced Climatic Consequences," Open Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol. 2 No. 4, 2012, pp. 302-318. doi: 10.4236/ojapps.2012.24045.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] W. H. Brutsaert and M. B. Parlange, “Hydrological Cycle Explains the Evaporation Paradox,” Nature, Vol. 396, No. 30, 1998, p. 30. doi:10.1038/23845
[2] B. G. Liepert, “Observed Reductions of Surface Solar Radiation at Sites in the United States and Worldwide from 1961 to 1990,” Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 29, No. 10, 2002, pp. 1421-1433.
[3] M. L. Roderick and G. D. Farquhar, “The Cause of Decreased Pan Evaporation over the Past 50 Years,” Science, Vol. 298, No. 5597, 2002, pp. 1410-1411.
[4] M. Z. Jacobson and V. J. Kaufman, “Wind Reduction by Aerosols Particles,” Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 33, 2006, p. L24814.
[5] K. Wang, R. E. Dickinson and S. Liang, “Clear Sky Visibility Has Decreased over Land Globally from 1973 to 2007,” Science, Vol. 13, 2009, pp. 1468-1470.
[6] S. C. Pryor, R. J. Barthelmie, D. T. Young, E. S. Takle, R. W. Arritt, D. Flory, W. J. Gutowski, A. Nunes and J. Roads, “Wind Speed Trends over the Contiguous United States,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 114, 2009, p. D14105.
[7] P. Schneider and S. J. Hook, “Space Observations of Inland Water Bodies Show Rapid Surface Warming since 1985,” Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 37, 2010, p. L22405.
[8] E. Sartori, “Solar Still Versus Solar Evaporator: A Comparative Study between Their Thermal Behaviors,” Solar Energy, Vol. 56, No. 2, 1996, pp. 199-206. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(95)00094-8
[9] E. Sartori, “A Critical Review on Equations Employed for the Calculation of the Evaporation Rate from Free Water Surfaces,” Solar Energy, Vol. 68, No. 1, 2000, pp. 77-89. doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(99)00054-7
[10] RGS—Royal Geographical Society, “Increasing Cloud Reflectivity,” 2011. http://www.21stcenturychallenges.org/60-seconds/increasing-cloud-reflectivity
[11] J. M. Haynes, G. L. Stephens, C. Mitrescu, S. D. Miller and T. S. Ecuyer, “Precipitation Estimation from CloudSat,” American Geophysical Union, Vol. 88, No. 52, 2007, pp. A1-A10.
[12] Harvard University, ACMG, SEAS, “The Greenhouse Effect,” Chapter 7, 2011. http://acmg.seas.harvard.edu/people/faculty/djj/book/bookchap7.html#10575
[13] L. V. Alexander, X. Zhang, T. C. Peterson, J. Caesar, B. Gleason, T. A. Klein, M. Haylock, D. Collins, B. Trewin, F. Rahimzadeh, A. Tagipour, K. K. Rupa, J. Revadekar, G. Griffiths, L. Vincent, D. B. Stephenson, J. Burn, E. Aguilar, M. Brunet, M. Taylor, M. New, P. Zhai, M. Rusticucci and J. L. Vazquez-Aguirre, “Global Observed Changes in Daily Climate Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. , No. 111, 2006, p. DO5109.
[14] P. Y. Groisman, R. W. Knight, D. R. Easterling, T. R. Karl, G. C. Hegerl and V. N. Razuvaev, “Trends in Intense Precipitation in the Climate Record,” Journal of Climate, Vol. 18, No. 9, 2005, pp. 1326-1350. doi:10.1175/JCLI3339.1
[15] IPCC, 2011. http://www.ipcc.ch
[16] E. Sartori, “A Mathematical Model for Predicting Heat and Mass Transfer from a Free Water Surface,” ISES Solar World Congress, Hamburg, No. 2, 1987, pp. 31603164.
[17] E. Sartori, “Prediction of the Heat and Mass Transfer from a Free Water Surface in the Turbulent Flow Case,” ISES Solar World Congress, Kobe, No. 3, 1989, pp. 2343-2347.
[18] E. Sartori, “The Thermal Inertia and the Conduction Heat Loss Effects on the Solar Evaporator,” Renewable Energy Congress, Reading, 1990, pp. 1110-1114.
[19] E. Sartori, “Evaporation from a Free Water Surface with Salt Concentration,” ISES Solar World Congress, Denver, 1991, pp. 2347-2351.
[20] E. Sartori, “Letter to the Editor,” Solar Energy, Vol. 73, No. 6, 2003, p. 481.
[21] E. Sartori, “Letter to the Editor,” Solar Energy, Vol. 82, No. 10, 2008, pp. 956-958. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2008.02.004
[22] V. P. Singh and C. Y. Xu, “Evaluation and Generalization of 13 Mass-Transfer Equations for Determining Free Water Evaporation,” Hydrological Processes, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1997, pp. 311-323.
[23] E. Sartori, “Convection Coefficient Equations for Forced Air Flow over Flat Surfaces,” Solar Energy, Vol. 80, No. 9, 2006, pp. 1063-1071. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2005.11.001
[24] M. L. Roderick and G. D. Farquhar, “Changes in Australian Pan Evaporation from 1970 to 2002,” International Journal of Climatology, Vol. 24, 2004, pp. 1077-1090.
[25] J. A. Duffie and W. A. Beckman, “Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes,” 3rd Edition, Wiley, Hudson, 2006.
[26] P. J. Lunde, “Solar Thermal Engineering,” Wiley, Hudson, 1980.
[27] ACS—American Chemical Society, “Chemistry in Context: Applying Chemistry to Society,” 6th Edition, McGrawHill, New York, 2009.
[28] J. E. Hansen, R. Ruedy, M. Sato, M. Imhoff, W. Lawrence, D. Easterling, T. Peterson and T. Karl, “A Closer Look at United States and Global Surface Temperature Change,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 106, No. D20, 2001, pp. 23947-23963.
[29] C. S. Zender, B. Bush, S. K. Pope, A. Bucholtz, W. D. Collins, J. T. Kiehl, F. P. Valero and J. Vitko, “Atmospheric Absorption during the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Enhanced Shortwave Experiment (ARESE),” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 102, No. D25, 1997, pp. 29901-29915.
[30] BNL—Brookhaven National Laboratory, “Aerosols,” 2011. www.bnl.gov
[31] J. Wang, F. J. Chagnon, E. R. Williams, A. K. Betts, N. O. Renno, L. A. Machado, G. Bisht, R. Knox and R. L. Bras, “Impact of Deforestation in the Amazon Basin on Cloud Climatology,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United Nations of America, Vol. 106, No. 10, 2009, pp. 3670-3674. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810156106
[32] D. Rosenfeld, U. Lohmann, G. B. Raga, C. D. O’Dowd, M. Kulmala, S. Fuzzi, A. Reissell and M. O. Andreae, “Flood or Drought: How Do Aerosols Affect Precipitation?” Science, Vol. 321, No. 5894, 2008, pp. 1309-1313. doi:10.1126/science.1160606
[33] S. L. Yu and W. H. Brutsaert, “Evaporation from Very Shallow Pans,” Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1967, pp. 265-271.
[34] I. S. Bowen, “The Ratio of Heat Losses by Conduction and by Evaporation from Any Water Surface,” Physical Review, Vol. 27, No. 6, 1926, pp. 779-787.

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.