MacArthur Fellows, 1981-2018: Gender, Race and Educational Attainment

This study examines the backgrounds of the winners of the MacArthur Fellowship grants from 1981 to 2018, from the conceptual framework of the term “genius”. The study finds that of the 1014 Fellows, Whites account for over eight out of every ten; minorities account for almost 20%; men account for almost 63%; White men account for 51.3%; Blacks account for 12.5%; Asians account for 5.9%; and Native Americans account for 1.2 percent. Of 965 terminal or highest degrees earned by 928 Fellows, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). White men earned the majority of all degrees (50.8%). Harvard University awarded the highest number of degrees, 119: Yale University, 61; University of California, Berkeley, 51; Columbia University, 44; and Princeton University, 41. All eight Ivy league institutions awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) Fellows. The 2020 U.S. News and World Report Top 25 institutions combined awarded 522 degrees (54.1%) to 514 Fellows (55.5%). There is a link among earned doctoral degrees, foreign-born males, and the overall gender gap in the study.


Introduction
One of the most important contributing factors for advanced or developed societies or countries to have the status or prestige they enjoy today is the productivity (scientific and cultural) of their colleges, universities, research institutes and centers. One can safely claim that a society's progress or advancement is correlated with the quality and quantity of its higher education institutions. Research by Kaba (2012a) of the 2009 Times Higher Education top 200 ranked universities in the world shows that 54 (27%) were located in the United States; 29 (15%) in the United Kingdom; 11 (5.5%) each in Canada, Japan, and the Netherlands; 10 (5%) in Germany; and 9 (4.5%) in Australia (p. 9). These are also among the nations with the largest gross domestic product (GDP) and GDP per capita in the World. Their ranked universities tend to have the largest endowments in the world. For example, Kaba's (2012a)  Students or their families and governments of societies where those higher education institutions are located are primarily responsible for funding higher education. In addition, philanthropic organizations such as foundations make significant contributions in supporting the education and research of those who are enrolled or work at colleges and universities. Some of the largest or wealthiest foundations are international in their giving, while others are more nationally or domestically focused. The majority of foundations provide grants, meaning that a person, group or entity must submit an application, wait for a decision, and if the decision is yes, a report is usually required to provide a summary of the project. Some foundations, on the other hand, can provide no strings attached support to individuals or organizations. In such an instance, the recipient of the award, grant or fellowship is not aware whether their name is submitted for such an award. Internationally, the Nobel Memorial Prize is an example of an award that comes with a substantial amount of money and gold medal, where the recipient does not submit an application (Zuckerman, 1992;Wallerstein, 2002). Nationally, in the United States, the MacArthur Fellowship Program is an example of a no strings attached money of over $600,000 awarded annually to dozens of talented individuals from all walks of life during a five-year period to be used whichever way they wish to help them in their academic research or artistic creations.

The MacArthur Fellowship Program
The MacArthur Fellows Program was established in 1981 by the MacArthur Foundation. According to the MacArthur Foundation: "The MacArthur Fellowship is a 'no strings attached' award in support of people, not projects. Each fellowship comes with a stipend of $625,000 to the recipient, paid out in equal quarterly installments over five years." The Foundation also adds that the Fellows Program intends: "to encourage people of outstanding talent to pursue by all of the Fellows. A study containing such findings will make a significant contribution to the understanding of the types of people receiving these fellowships. This information is very important especially in a country as diverse as the United States.
This study examines the backgrounds of MacArthur Fellows for the almost four decades period from 1981 to 2018. The study begins by defining or conceptualizing the term "Genius". Next, the methodology section explains how the data for this study were collected and computed. For example, the concept of race or the racial categorization of people in the United States is significantly different than in other societies or nations. Next, the findings or results section of this study are presented. For example, the overall gender gap would have been a lot higher had it not been the selection of increasing numbers of women (now at 37%) in the past decade. Finally, a discussion section is presented to make sense of the numerous interrelated findings or results. For example, there is a link among earned doctoral degrees, foreign-born males, and the overall gender gap in the study. This means that if the selection criteria for Fellows were limited to native-born United States citizens, then the gender gap could have been smaller.

Defining the Term Genius
The public tends to refer to MacArthur Fellows as geniuses, while the MacArthur Fellowship Program utilizes the word creative or creativity to refer to them or describe them. It has been widely noted that the MacArthur Fellowship Program has never officially used the term genius to refer to Fellows. According to von Gunten (2009), "The popular press has generally characterized these as 'genius' awards" (p. 5). As Wooster (2014) notes: "The first article to refer to the fellowships as 'genius grants' was written by Diane Shah in Newsweek in 1979-two years before the fellowships program was started." According to the Managing Editor of the MacArthur Fellowship Program, Dr. Cecilia Conrad (2013): "The foundation does not use the name 'genius' grant; the news media coined that nickname in 1981, when we announced our first class of fellows, and it stuck." Instead, the MacArthur Fellowship Program has utilized the term creative or creativity. According to Sternberg (2006), creativity entails the convergence of six different but interrelated resources: "intellectual abilities, knowledge, styles of thinking, personality, motivation, and environment" (p. 88). It is therefore useful to present definitions or explanations of the term genius. A primary reason for this is that the definition of genius by one person may be different from another person's understanding of the term. As Goldberg (2017) points out, "… it's hard to tell who among the living truly is a genius" (p. C5). A careful examination of numerous scholarly journal articles, public intellectual journal articles, books, etc. shows various interrelated definitions of the term genius, but a debate exists as to what type of person should be considered a genius, or what the characteristics of a genius must be. Moreover, many of the defini-tions of the term genius include the word creativity. Epstein (2013) points out that: "The definitions for genius may be greater than the actual number of true geniuses" (p.38; also see Garber, 2002: p. 65). According to Kalb (2017): "Genius is too elusive, too subjective, too wedded to the verdict of history to be easily identified. And it requires the ultimate expression of too many traits to be simplified into the highest point on one human scale" (p. 42). Brinkman (2010) notes that, "The concept of genius is both revered and reviled in modern society" (p. 124). Garber (2002) points out that: "The word "genius" derives from the same root as "gene" and "genetic," and meant originally, in Latin, a tutelary god or spirit given to every person at birth" (p. 67). Garber (2002) adds that the term genius, which is an eighteenth century word, "… continues to be, the Romantic hero, the loner, the eccentric, the apotheosis of the individual" (p. 65). Andrews (2018) defines a genius as one with "exceptional intellectual or creative power or other natural ability" (p. 27). Brinkman (2010) explains "… the components of creative genius, including talent, intelligence, memory, and the unconscious, …" (p. 124; also see Benzon, 2018). Using the academic discipline or field of psychology to define genius using Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, Orner (2016) claims that the term describes "… a person who has an extraordinarily high level of intellectual power … it is designated by exceptional creative ability and achievement" (also see Kalb, 2017: p. 42;Coutu, 2007: p. 122). Epstein (2013) explains how rare geniuses are, and attempts to describe them by comparing them to learned individuals: "A man of learning is a man who has learned a great deal; a man of genius, one from whom we learn something which the genius has learned from nobody" (p. 38). Epstein (2013) adds that: A genius is not merely brilliant, skillful, masterly, sometimes dazzling; he is miraculous, in the sense that his presence cannot be predicted, explained, or accounted for (at least thus far) by natural laws or scientific study" (p. 38). Isaacson (2017) also compares a genius to a "supersmart" individual by pointing out that: "Smart people are a dime a dozen, and many of them don't amount to much. What matters is creativity, the ability to apply imagination to almost any situation" (p.

62).
Patchett (2017) discusses who a genius is through the question of what it would require: "… knowing the thing you are meant to do in life, and then doing it without regard for the time it will take?" (p. 64). This means that hard work, dedication and perseverance are important components of being a genius. As von Gunten (2009) notes, "Thomas A. Edison is famously remembered to have said, 'Genius is 10% inspiration and 90% perspiration'" (p. 5; also see Simonton, 2017: 126). According to Kalb (2017): "Natural gifts and a nurturing environment can still fall short of producing a genius, without motivation and tenacity propelling one forward. These personality traits, which pushed Darwin to spend two decades perfecting Origin of Species and Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan to produce thousands of formulas …" (p. 47). Kalb (2017) cites a female MacArthur Fellow who notes that passion and perseverance combined, which she calls "grit" is the drive behind people's achievements. The idea of being a genius is not disguised within magic to make it seem that the important achievements of individuals happen spontaneously without hard work: "… there are differences when it comes to individual talent, but no matter how brilliant a person, fortitude and discipline are critical to success. 'When you really look at somebody who accomplishes something great,' … 'it is not effortless'" (p. 47). Kalb (2017) points out that one can attempt to understand the term genius: "… by unraveling the complex and tangled qualities-intelligence, creativity, perseverance, and simple good fortune, to name a few-that entwine to create a person capable of changing the world" (p. 42).
One criticism of this concept of genius, which many tend to connect to those selected to become MacArthur Fellows, is that a higher percentage of individuals from certain groups or categories (sex/gender, race or ethnic origin), could be considered to be geniuses. For example, Kalb (2017) cites a scholar who caution's people on the use of the word genius because It can "… be a societal judgment that elevates a chosen few while overlooking others-but to nurture imagination in everyone" (p. 43). Goldberg (2017) also notes that the first time editors of the National Geographic magazine "… gathered portraits to create a gallery of geniuses past … the uniformity was obvious-and unsettling. In the sciences and arts, statecraft and literature, philosophy and industry, those hailed as geniuses were most often white men, of European origin" (p. C5).
The various definitions or explanations presented above as to who is a genius tend to show that it is someone who can either have formal or informal education. This person is passionate about a topic or multiple topics. He or she enjoys working for long hours on a task and is disciplined and persistent. He or she is so dedicated that they would persevere on a project even if it takes them decades to complete. To be a genius then is not just having mental skills, but also dedication and patience.

Methodology
This research project started in June 2017. The data were collected from June 2017 to October 2018. Its aim is to make a useful contribution to the body of knowledge that has been produced on the MacArthur Fellowship Program. The MacArthur Fellowship Program presents the photos of almost all of its Fellows. It also presents background information of all Fellows under their names and photos, including profession, year fellowship was awarded, employment affiliation, geographic location when fellowship was awarded, age at the time of award, and academic degrees (https://www.macfound.org/fellows/search/all). For Fellows without available photos on the MacArthur Fellowship Program's website, I searched their employment or personal websites or google image to find a photo Program did not identify a Fellow as he or she, and a number of media reports identified the individual as transsexual (from male to female). I therefore included that Fellow in the female/women category in this study. The race variable is based on the classifications of the various racial groups in the United States federal government (Gans, 2012;Kaba, 2015: pp. 120-121; "Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity," 1995;Yancey 2003). For example, Kaba (2017a) cites the White House Office of Management and Budget as claiming that: "The term 'Black' in Directive No. 15 refers to a person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa." Explaining who belongs to the White category: "In Directive No. 15, the 'White' category includes persons having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East" (p. 20). This means that a Fellow with a visible or significant Black African blood is categorized as Black. A Fellow from South Asian nations such as Bangladesh, India, Pakistan or Sri Lanka, or East or Southeast Asian nations such as China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Philippines, Thailand, or Vietnam is categorized as Asian. A Fellow with ancestry from Israel, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia or Arab is categorized as White. A Fellow with European ancestry is categorized as White. A Fellow with mixed Asian ancestry and any of the groups just categorized as White above is also categorized as White (Jilani, 2020). There is one male Fellow with a Mexican mother and a Chinese father and he is categorized as Chinese (Asian) in this study. The reason is that most native Mexicans have DNA traced back to Asia.
The educational attainment data focuses on a Fellow's earned highest or terminal college or higher education degree(s). If a Fellow has an earned bachelor's degree or higher, I only count the highest degree. If he or she has any number of master's degrees only, I counted them all. If he or she has an earned master's and a JD, I counted only the JD. If he or she has an earned master's degree and a doctorate degree (such as Ph.D. or Ed.D.), I counted only the doctorate degree; I combined or counted a doctorate and an MD (Doctor of Medicine), or a doctorate and a JD (Juris Doctor). If a Fellow has one or more bachelor's degrees only, I counted them all. If a Fellow has one or more Associate degrees only (from a community or two-year college), I counted them all. If a Fellow has an MD and an MPA, MHA, or MBA, I only counted the MD. If a Fellow has a JD and an L.L.M., I only counted the JD. The reason is that for the most part, one has to have a JD to qualify to get an L.L.M., but the vast majority of people with a JD do not seek an L.L.M. The types of academic degrees include B.A., B.S., M.A., M.S., Ph.D., and Ed.D. The MacArthur Fellowship Program tends to periodically update the information of its Fellows, including educational attainment data. However, in the instances where I did not find a Fellow with a college degree on the MacArthur Fellowship Program's website, I searched the Fellow's website and any relevant publications to determine whether he or she has an earned college degree. For example, it was through this method that I found out that the youngest female Macarthur Fellow, Lateefah Simon (who won the award at age 26 in 2003), earned a bachelor's degree in public policy from Mills College in California in 2017.

Data Availability and Limitations of This Study
The regional data are for both the four regions of the United States (Midwest, Northeast, South and West) and the regions of the world based on the United Nations' categorization (see appendices section). I carefully rechecked all of the data I compiled several times for accuracy. For example, I was able to confirm the claim by the MacArthur Fellowship Program that from 1981 to October 2018, 1014 Fellows had been selected, through entering and counting the data of every single Fellow.
I did not contact any Fellow for any missing information pertaining to that Fellow. Apart from compiling the data from the MacArthur Fellowship Program's website, I did not contact any official at the Program to request a particular information about a Fellow. As explained above, if information is missing for a particular Fellow, I either clearly state that fact or I attempted to search the web for such information. The reason is that If I were to contact one person for missing information, they either would not feel comfortable providing such data or I may need to do the same for every Fellow with missing data. As a result, this study could not be completed.

Gender/Sex and Racial Categories of MacArthur Fellows, 1981-2018
I have conducted numerous studies of prominent or gifted individuals in the past decade, and I have also examined studies conducted in the past several decades of such individuals. One finding that has remained constant in these studies is that regardless of race, ethnicity, or geographic location, males outnumber their female counterparts (Kaba, 2012b(Kaba, , 2013ab, 2015(Kaba, , 2016. This current study observes the continuation of that trend. For example, according to

Alma Mater of Highest/Terminal Higher Education Degrees and Types of Degrees Earned by MacArthur Fellows, 1981 to 2018, by Sex and Race
The alma mater or higher education institution where an individual earns their degree plays an important role in that person's success in the United States and the world. This is also the case when it comes to those selected for the MacAr-thur Fellowship. This has also been observed in other studies focusing on prominent individuals from many walks of life (Kaba, 2012b(Kaba, , 2013ab, 2015(Kaba, , 2016(Kaba, , 2017a Of the 100 Fellows that did not earn an undergraduate degree, 39 attended college but did not complete their program of study, 37 did not participate in higher education studies, and 24 did not complete their undergraduate degrees, but hold advanced graduate degrees (Conrad, 2017).
The information on the state and region in the United States, country, and world region where a Fellow's alma matter is located is also very important because these entities tend to compete for talent (Hernandez, 2013;Kaba, 2012bKaba, , 2013ab, 2015Kaba, , 2016Kaba, , 2017a Of the 865 degrees earned in the United States, 475 (54.9%, but 49.2% of 965 total) are earned at institutions in the Northeast (280 by men and 195 by women); 187 (21.6%, but 19.4% of total) degrees earned in the West (120 men and 67 women);115 (13.3%, but 11.9% of total) degrees earned in the Midwest (70 men and 45 women); and 88 (10.2%, but 9.1% of total) degrees are earned in the South (46 by men and 42 by women).
Of the 115 degrees earned from 25 institutions in the Midwest, 59 (51.3%, but 6.8% of U.S. total) are earned by White men; 36 (31.3%, but 4.2% of U.S. total) are earned by White women; 6 (5.2%, but 0.7% of U.S. total) are earned by Black women; 5 (4.3%, but 0.6% of U.S. total) each are earned by Asian men and Black men; 3 (2.6%, but 0.4% of U.S. total) are earned by Asian women; and 1 (0.9%, but 0.12% of U.S. total) is earned by a Native American man. Of the 88 degrees earned from 39 institutions in the South, 39 (44.3%, but 4.5% of U.S. total) are earned by White men; 31 (35.2%, but 3.6% of U.S. total) are earned by White women; 10 (11.4%, but 1.2% of U.S. total) are earned by Black women; 6 (6.8%, but 0.7% of U.S. total) are earned by Black men; and 1 (2.3%, but 0.12% of U.S. total) each is earned by an Asian man and a Native American woman.
Examining the top 10 states that awarded the most degrees, the state of Massachusetts awarded the most number of degrees (176)  The following institutions awarded 10 or more degrees: Harvard University,

Discussion
The statistics on the MacArthur Fellows presented above have provided to the public a better understanding of the demographic, educational and professional backgrounds of these geniuses. The data illustrated that while White men accounted for the majority of Fellows selected from 1981 to 2018, women and minorities have substantially increased their overall proportions. In fact, since the data show that those selected to be Fellows are aged 18 and older, the 12.5% of Blacks and the 5.9% of Asians in Table 1 are almost their adult proportions in the general population of the United States. For example, of the 249.2 million people in the United States aged 18 and over in 2018, 13.3% were Black and 6.2% were Asian (" Table 1 However, as the data illustrated, the figures have not increase for women, especially Asian, Black, and White women, the way they have increased for minorities. For example, as  Kaba, 2012bKaba, , 2013ab, 2015Kaba, , 2016Kaba, , 2017aMiller et al., 2018;Pick, 1995;Wooster 2010: p. 43). In an interview with a former Director of the MacArthur Fellowship Program, Daniel J. Socolow, Coutu (2007) brought up this issue as to whether it tends to be a challenge for women to win the MacArthur Fellowship. Socolow then explains that while that is the case the number of women selected as Fellows has gradually increased over the decades as the positions that women hold or the roles that they play in society have changed. He claims that the MacArthur Fellowship Program makes sure that women are well represented, especially as they are just as creative as their male counterparts. Part of the reason why more men are selected as Fellows, according to Socolow, could be due to the career paths that women and men take.
Women tend to have competing demands in the society compared to their male counterparts. He notes that the gap in numbers are closing and that at least once during his tenure, the majority of Fellows selected were women (p. 126).
The remaining part of this discussion section will focus on the following: the complex racial categorization in the United States; educational attainment and highest or terminal degrees; educational attainment and academic institutions; and academic institutions and geographic location.

Complex Racial Categorization in the United States
It is important to point out that the method used to define racial categories in the United States is responsible for Whites accounting for over four out of every five Fellows in this current study. As noted in the methodology section, most individuals from Arab countries in Asia and Africa are categorized as White in the United States. Individuals from Iran, Israel, Turkey and most central Asian nations are also categorized as White. Individuals from China, Japan, South Korea, India and southeastern Asian nations are categorized as Asian, but if any of them has a child with someone who is categorized as White, such as an Irish person, then that child is White. One such person is categorized as White in this study, instead of Asian (also see Jilani, 2020). This means that the method of racial categorization in the United States tends to hide the Asian population in the country, which then results in those Asian and African nations where people of Asian heritage/DNA have been residing for over 1,400 years, not getting the recognition they deserve, because most people equate White with European. Kaba (2017a) discussed this issue and pointed out that the Barack Obama administration published a notice in the Federal Register entitled: "Standards for Maintaining, Collecting and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity" for the public to make comments on the government's intention to create a new racial category in the 2020 U.S. Census called: "Middle Eastern and North African" (MENA). It is reported that this potential racial categorization "… would include anyone from a region of the world stretching from Morocco to Iran, and including Syrian and Coptic Christians, Israeli Jews and other religious minorities" (pp. 105-106).

Educational Attainment and Highest or Terminal Degrees
Educational attainment, especially terminal degrees such as doctoral, MDs, JDs, and to a great extent, master's degrees tend to be the primary factor for the selection of an individual as a MacArthur Fellow. This is especially the case with the Ph.D. degree, which turns out to account for 514 (53.3%) of the total 965 terminal or highest degrees awarded to 928 Fellows. The 144 (15.9%) bachelor's degrees earned by 140 Fellows, plus the 3 associate/diploma degrees earned by 3 Fellows, which combined for 147 degrees account for 15.2% of all 965 degrees awarded. It is important to note that while earning a college degree, especially a terminal degrees is a big factor that determines an individual's selection to become a MacArthur Fellow, as discussed Table 2  Although earning a terminal degree increases a person's chances of being selected as a MacArthur Fellow, in the United States in particular, the higher education institutions where Fellows earned their degrees can be argued to be far more important than the degree itself.  (Table 3; also see Benzon, 2018: pp. 4 & 7;Wooster, 2010: p. 42). Writing about the predo-   (Table 4; also see Benzon, 2018: pp. 4 & 7).

Geographic Location of Higher Education Institutions Where MacArthur Fellows Earned Their Highest or Terminal Degrees
This brings us to the geographic location such as the U.S. state and region, country, and world region where an institution is located. This is a very important information that helps one to understand the selection of an individual as a Fellow. It is not a co-incidence that all eight ivy league institutions are located in the Northeast region of the United States, or that a substantial number of degrees (155 degrees) were awarded in California alone. The Northeast and the West, especially California tend to have relatively high numbers of Fellows partly because of their wealth, with New York, Massachusetts and New Jersey leading the way in the Northeast. The wealthier a state and its region are, the more likely that they have significant numbers of top ranked colleges and university. This is because top ranked institutions tend to have relatively high endowments. For example, Kaba's (2016) study finds that: "…. the endowment data provided by the US Department of Education for the 120 institutions in the US with the wealth of a university is also connected to the age of an institution. Kaba's (2012a) study also finds that the older an institution is, the more likely that it is highly ranked, and the more likely that it has a large endowment. For example, Ivy league institutions are among the oldest higher education institutions in the United States, with Harvard University established in 1636, Yale University in 1701, and Princeton University in 1746 (p. 27).
These explanations in the paragraph above tend to apply for the most part to the countries with institutions that awarded highest or terminal degrees to the Fellows in this current study. As Table A1

Conclusion
This study started by discussing the contributions made by various non-governmental organizations that honor or award grants or fellowships to gifted individuals.
Some of these organizations require lengthy applications, while some do not require one to apply, but will have committees that would do confidential search for gifted individuals that they select for grants. In the United States, the Ma-cArthur Fellowship Program, established in 1981, has been awarding grants worth hundreds of thousands of dollars with no strings attached to individuals the program selects over a five-year period. Around twenty to twenty-five individuals who are either citizens or residents of the United States are eligible for the award. By 2019, the amount awarded to each Fellow over a five-year period was $625,000. The study presents a conceptual definitions section to explain the term "genius". The media and the public refer to the Fellows as geniuses, while the Ma-cArthur Fellowship Program refers to them as "creative" or uses the term "creativity" when lamenting about them (Conrad, 2014, September 2). Some definitions of the term genius tend to include the word creative or creativity. One common definition of the term genius is a person with "exceptional intellectual or creative power or other natural ability".
The study produced many interesting findings. For example, of the 1014 Fel-lows, Whites account for over eight out of every ten, while minorities account for almost 20 percent. Men account for almost 63%, with White men accounting for 51.3 percent. White women account for 29.1%, followed by Black men, 7.2%, Black women, 5.3%, Asian men, 3.94%, Asian women, 1.98%, Native American women, 0.8%, and Native American men, 0.4 percent. Asians are the youngest Fellows, while Black Fellows are the oldest. Both the youngest and oldest Fellows are White men, and the youngest female Fellow is a Black woman. The mean age for all men is 45.98 years and 45.53 years for women. Finally, of the 965 terminal or highest degrees earned by 928 Fellows,540 (56%)  The data in this study have revealed that men continue to be overrepresented among those selected as MacArthur Fellows, just as they are overrepresented among those awarded many other prizes to prominent individuals in the United States. As it is already obvious, earning a college degree, especially a terminal degree such as doctoral, MD, or JD, puts a candidate in a position to be selected as a Fellow. It is just in the 1970s that women and minorities were accepted into higher education institutions in significant numbers. It would therefore take significant time to earn bachelor's degrees, and especially so for terminal degrees. However, some minority groups such as Black men and Asian men tend to have higher proportions of Fellows than their proportions in the adult population of the United States.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. Table A1. Alma Mater of Earned Highest/Terminal Higher Education Degree and type of Degree of MacArthur Fellows, 1981 to 2018, by Sex andRace [N = 232 institutions (174 institutions