Use of Detailed Topographic Map Evidence of the Southeast Wyoming Gangplank Area to Compare Two Fundamentally Different Geomorphology Paradigms, USA

Drainage divides along a southern Laramie Range crest area and in the near-by southeast Wyoming Gangplank area (as observed on detailed topographic maps) suggest present-day drainage routes in the Cheyenne Tablelands region originated as headward erosion of south-oriented valleys (now the downstream Lodgepole, Crow, and Lone Tree Creek valleys) from an actively eroding northeast-oriented South Platte River valley captured flood flow in the south half of a large east-oriented anastomosing channel complex while headward erosion of a north-oriented valley (now the downstream Horse Creek valley) from the southeast-oriented North Platte River valley captured the north half of the same large anastomosing channel complex. The Gangplank, which today serves as a low gradient ramp of Tertiary Ogallala Formation sediments leading from the Great Plains to the Laramie Range erosion surface, is located along the Crow Creek-Lone Tree Creek drainage divide and low points along that divide (referred to here as divide crossings) suggest, prior to headward erosion of what is now its south-oriented downstream Lone Tree Creek valley, upstream east-oriented Lone Tree Creek drainage routes were intertwined with east-oriented Crow Creek drainage routes, which today flow much further in an east direction (than east-oriented upstream Lone Tree Creek drainage routes) before also turning in a south direction to reach the South Platte River. The ability of the commonly accepted regional geomorphology paradigm to explain this topographic map evidence is then compared with a fundamentally different and new regional geomorphology paradigm’s ability to explain the same evidence. While both paradigms offer possible explanations the new paradigm, which requires headward erosion of the valleys to melt water floods crossed the region, explains much more of the drainage system evidence and also permits much more detailed explanations.


Statement of the Problem
The interpretation of detailed topographic maps to determine previous drainage patterns (that existed prior to modern-day drainage) is a powerful, but rarely used research tool. The map interpretation technique begins by locating low points along drainage divides (referred to in this paper as divide crossings) where water once flowed in one direction or the other across what is now a drainage divide and then uses map evidence to determine the former flow direction, the nature of the flow, and why the flow direction changed so as to create the drainage divide. While detailed topographic maps covering most North American regions have been available for at least fifty years the published geomorphology literature rarely describes such studies, perhaps because the commonly accepted geomorphology paradigm does not offer good explanations for what the detailed topographic maps show. Scientific paradigms according to Thomas Kuhn [1] are frameworks of rules governing how researchers in a specific discipline conduct their research with each discipline's accepted paradigm having been selected based on its ability to explain observed evidence and to open up new research opportunities. Kuhn notes most scientific research is normal science in which the discipline's accepted paradigm is fleshed out and not questioned, but that paradigms also identify anomalous evidence, which an accepted paradigm cannot explain. Anomalous evidence according to Kuhn is dealt with in one of three ways; first the paradigm eventually explains it and the accepted paradigm continues without serious interruption; second, the anomalous evidence is described and shelved for future consideration; and third, the anomalous evidence leads to a new paradigm and a battle over which paradigm to use.
Several drainage features in the the North and South Platte River drainage areas seen in Figure 1 represent large-scale anomalous evidence the commonly accepted regional geomorphology paradigm (accepted paradigm) has yet to explain. For example, the accepted paradigm usually assumes Wyoming mountain ranges (such as the Laramie Mountains) developed during Eocene time and was then eroded as Oligocene and Miocene sediments filled structural basins between the mountain ranges to produce an eastward sloping surface and drainage system with subsequent regional uplift initiating a new erosion cycle that at least partially excavated the intermontane basins to recreate at least some of the former Eocene topography. Such an interpretation does not explain why the North Platte River flows from northern Colorado into central Wyoming as a north-oriented river and then turns in a southeast direction or why the Laramie River flows in a north direction before turning in an east and northeast direction to join the southeast-oriented North Platte River. Geomorphologists abiding by accepted paradigm rules treat those large-scale river direction changes as (shelved) anomalous evidence. Yet, geomorphology is the science that studies "the classification, description, nature, origin, and development of present landforms and their relationships to underlying structures, and of the history of geologic changes as recorded by these surface features" [2], and the North Platte River and Laramie River direction changes represent large-scale evidence a regional geomorphology paradigm should be able to explain. For this reason, a new paradigm has emerged with a defining rule requiring almost all valleys within the present-day Missouri River drainage basin to have eroded headward across or along massive south and southeast-oriented floods.
The new paradigm defining rule forces recognition of a large continental ice sheet that deeply eroded the continent (the accepted paradigm does not recognize deep continental ice sheet erosion) and heavy enough to cause crustal warping that raised entire regions and mountain ranges as immense meltwater floods flowed across them (the accepted paradigm attributes regional and mountain range uplift to other causes and to have occurred prior to any North Amer-ican continental ice sheets). The new paradigm implies Wyoming and Colorado regional and mountain range uplift occurred as massive south-oriented continental ice sheet melt water floods flowed across the region with Colorado mountain range uplift blocking, diverting, and reversing the floods, which were also beheaded and reversed in sequence (from east to west) by headward erosion of the southeast-oriented North Platte River valley. South-oriented flood flow on both the north-oriented Laramie and North Platte River alignments that had been flowing to the actively eroding Colorado River valley was blocked by rising Colorado mountain ranges with the south-oriented water on the what is today the north-oriented North Platte River alignment forced to flow to the Laramie Basin where it could spill in an east direction across the rising Laramie Range so as to reach the actively eroding North and South Platte River valleys. At the same time headward erosion of the southeast-oriented North Platte River valley was beheading and reversing south-oriented flood flow across the northern Laramie Range while south-oriented flood flow continued to move into northern Colorado along what is today the north-oriented North Platte River alignment where the water was forced to flow in an east direction along the present-day northwest-and west-oriented Michigan River valley route and in a north direction along the Cameron Pass alignment to reach the Laramie Basin and then to spill eastward. The new paradigm explains the North Platte and Laramie River routes while the accepted paradigm does not, and the question arises, how do the two paradigms explain the more detailed southeast Wyoming drainage features shown in Figure 2?

Geographic Setting
The "Gangplank" is a narrow strip of Tertiary sediments located in Figure 2 between the Crow and Lone Tree Creek drainage basins where it is possible to travel up a gradual slope without interruption from the Great Plains to the Laramie Range crest and is today a major railroad and highway transportation route [3], yet erosional details describing how the Gangplank was formed have never been well-described.

Previous Work
The most significant previous work (related to this paper) was done over many years and resulted in the detailed topographic maps now available at the United States Geological Survey (USGS) National Map website. These paradigm neutral The Gangplank is where the Cheyenne Tablelands Miocene Ogallala Formation "forms a smoothly ascending ramp up onto the Laramie Range" [3] (p. 203) and laps onto Precambrian bedrock units. Atwood and Atwood [6] (p. 971) state "the transition from the plains to the mountains is almost imperceptible. There is no pronounced change or break in the topography". Similar Ogallala sediments form the most common surface bedrock unit found throughout the southeast Wyoming Cheyenne Tablelands region, which is located to the east of the Laramie Range and between the southeast-oriented North Platte River and the northeast-oriented South Platte River. Mears [7] (p. 451) notes "the late Miocene Ogallala Formation reflects a major change in depositional environments. …The dominantly fluvial Ogallala deposits, which overlie a pronounced erosion surface, are mostly relatively coarse clastics in deep channel fills of shifting stream systems. Some of the clasts were derived from the distinctive pink Sherman Granite, dark anorthosites and other Precambrian rocks in the Laramie Range, however a notable component are Precambrian rock types from the Colorado Front Range. The most distinctive clasts are rhyolitic cobbles, pebbles, and granules from late Oligocene volcanic fields in Colorado" which implies they must have been transported by northeast-oriented streams crossing what are today the Laramie Basin and the Laramie Range core. In terms of the Laramie Range core area immediately to the west of the Gangplank Blackwelder [8] (p. 435) states "the surface is in reality a plain of denudation, now more or less dissected. This surface passes with very little change across the outcrops of many different kinds of rock. Schists, gneisses, porphyries, and gabbros are alike worn to a common level; and so slightly do they affect the details of the topography that surface forms are of doubtful value in mapping the outcrops of the different rock formations".
Several workers have tried to explain the above observations from an accepted paradigm perspective. and the Laramie Range, which requires a very different regional topography than what exists today. Many accepted paradigm interpretations suggest intramontane basins (like the Laramie Basin) were filled with great thicknesses of middle Tertiary sediments and Pelletier [10] argues that increased late Miocene and Plio-Quaternary snowmelt eroded the intramontane basins and caused downstream deposition, which (p. 5) "is broadly consistent with the magnitude timing, and spatial distribution of the Ogallala Formation". However, Fan et al. [11] state "when and how the central Rocky Mountains (Rockies) of western North America gained modern topography remain controversial questions" and go on to "suggest that the region underwent differential uplift to form relief similar to that of today before earliest Oligocene time", but do not explain how Colorado late Oligocene volcanic alluvium reached the Cheyenne Tablelands. These and other investigators who followed accepted paradigm rules also fail to demonstrate how their hypotheses explain the detailed topographic map drainage system evidence. From a new paradigm perspective Clausen [12] (p. 35) used topographic map evidence to demonstrate how a diverging and converging complex of bedrock-walled canyons now crossing the Laramie Range (where the Laramie River crosses the Laramie Range) was eroded by multiple streams of water that "must have diverged in the Laramie Basin from the north-oriented Laramie River to enter the Laramie Range before converging in or east of the Laramie Range". In a subsequent paper dealing with the Laramie Range northern and northwest sections Clausen notes [13] (p. 739) immense south-oriented floods "flowed in large complexes of diverging and converging channels crossing what at that time was a rising Laramie Mountains area with the North Platte valley eroding headward along the northern Laramie Mountains northeast flank and the around Casper Mountain [at the Laramie Mountains' northwest end] to capture, behead, and reverse those south-oriented flood flow channels". In other words, those two papers imply large south-oriented floods entering what is today the Laramie Basin were beheaded and reversed. In a more recent paper [14] Clausen (p. 53) states "south-oriented flood flow moving on what is now the north-oriented North Platte River alignment (which prior to its reversal had been moving water across what are now high mountain passes to the Colorado River drainage basin and to the Laramie and Cache la Poudre Rivers)" and implies huge south-oriented floods flowed around the Medicine Bow Mountains south end on a route that eventually eroded Cameron Pass so as to flow in a north direction and to enter the Laramie Basin area as large north-oriented floods.

Research Method
The study reported here used topographic maps, imagery, and tools available at the USGS National Map website and also the cited geologic maps and literature. Creek and Lone Tree Creek drainage basins. In addition, topographic maps covering North Platte and Laramie River headwaters areas were studied to determine how previously reported distinctive volcanic alluvium (described as Oligocene in age) had been transported from northern Colorado across what are now the Laramie Basin and the Laramie Range to be deposited in Ogallala Formation sediments found to the east of the Laramie Range. The observed topographic map evidence was explained to extent possible by previously published accepted paradigm hypotheses and also from the context of the new paradigm defining rule, which requires all major valleys within the present-day Missouri River drainage basin to have been eroded across or along immense south-and southeast-oriented floods.  crossings must address interpretations such as the Fan et al. [11] (p. 547) suggestions that "the region underwent differential uplift to form relief similar to that of today before earliest Oligocene time" and "the central Rockies and adjacent Great Plains underwent uplift during the late Eocene, and have not undergone any large magnitude (>500 m) uplift since that time". If correctly interpreted the Laramie Basin must have been filled during Oligocene and Miocene time with sedimentary materials to a level at least 400 meters above the present-day basin floor, which is precisely what many previous investigators have suggested. For example, Mears [15] (p. 609) in a literature review describes "renewed basin filling in the latest Eocene [and the] rising level of Oligocene and then Miocene deposits eventually lapped across the lower segments of the crystalline-cored uplands that finally had been eroded down to broad subsummit surfaces surmounted by residual hills and peaks". While such an accepted paradigm interpretation provides a way for east-oriented streams of water to have reached the Laramie Range crest the interpretation leaves unanswered how 400 or more meters of hypothesized Oligocene and Miocene sediments were completely removed from what is now the Laramie Basin since the Geologic Map of Wyoming [16] in the Laramie Basin area to the west shows few, if any remnants of that hypothesized 400 meters of Oligocene and Miocene sediment fill (although such sediments are found in northern Laramie Range valleys [17]). In contrast the new paradigm requires Wyoming and Colorado regional and mountain uplift to have occurred while south-and southeast-oriented continental ice sheet melt water floods flowed across the region and implies the continental ice sheet weight was responsible for crustal warping that raised the region and mountain ranges and does not require 400 or more meters of Oligocene and Miocene sediments to have filled the Laramie Basin. Instead the new paradigm explanation requires massive and prolonged south-oriented floods to have flowed across the region with regional and mountain uplift blocking the flood flow in Colorado and forcing the south-oriented water flowing to the west of the rising Medicine Bow Mountains to make a U turn around the rising Medicine Bow Mountains' southern end and to flow in a north direction into the Laramie Basin, only to be met by south-oriented floods still reaching the area from the north and northwest, which forced the floodwaters to spill in an eastward direction across the rising Laramie Range. As Laramie Range uplift progressed east-oriented canyons eroded headward from the actively eroding North Platte River valley and captured east-oriented flood flow moving from the Laramie Basin with south-oriented flood flow channeled into the North Laramie River canyon and north-oriented flood flow channeled into canyons associated with the present-day Laramie River canyon [12].

Middle Crow Creek Headwaters Area
In Figure    bedrock core. The east-west divided highway and railroad are located on the South Fork South Crow-Lone Tree Creek drainage divide (shown by the dashed red line) and the purple stippled area is a large granite quarry. To the east of the town of Granite and south of the highway is another quarry where a narrow outcrop of mapped Paleozoic sediments [5] is also mined. To the east of that narrow outcrop the highway and railroad are located on Miocene Ogallala Formation sediments which form the Gangplank. The geologic map [5] shows some of the South Fork South Crow Creek valley as being cut into Oligocene White River Formation (which underlies the Ogallala Formation and which is abundant in areas to the east of the Laramie Range). Note how the highway and the railroad use the South Fork Crow-Lone Tree Creek drainage divide to transition from the beveled off Laramie Range Precambrian bedrock core onto the Gangplank Miocene sediment ramp. Notice also how the divided highway and railroad cross a shallow divide crossing at number 5 on embankments while the road between them dips below the darker contour line. That divide crossing was eroded by southeast-oriented water flowing from the South Fork South Crow Creek drainage basin into the Lone Tree Creek drainage basin (probably flowing in a southeast direction across an unlabeled divide crossing located north of the granite quarry). Number 6 identifies a deeper divide crossing, which links east-and north-oriented South Fork South Crow Creek with northeast-oriented Spring Branch headwaters which flow to South Fork South Crow Creek just to the northeast of Figure 5. The divide crossing at number 7 suggests water once flowed in a northeast direction from the Lone Tree Creek drainage basin into the South Fork South Crow Creek drainage basin. These and other divide crossings suggest the Crow and Lone Creek drainage systems originated as components of the same east-oriented anastomosing channel complex, with headward erosion of a south-oriented valley capturing the south half (now the Lone Creek drainage basin) while the north half is now the Crow Creek drainage basin. Laramie Range bedrock core is lost as erosion has exposed hogback ridges and To the east of Figure 6 Lone Tree Creek turns from flowing in an east direction to flow in more of a south direction and to join the northeast-oriented South Platte River (see Figure 2). Babcock and Bjorklund [19]

Discussion
Lodgepole, Crow, Lone Tree, and Dale Creek flow to the northeast-oriented South Platte River, although at very different locations (see Figure 1 and Figure   2) and the question arises, how can these four east-  Figure 1 and Figure 2).
While the evidence for the above described sequence of valley erosion is easily seen on detailed topographic maps the accepted paradigm does not provide a water source large enough to account for the described erosion events (especially since most accepted paradigm interpretations require vast quantities of water from an unknown source to have also completely or almost completely removed 400 or more meters of hypothesized Oligocene and Miocene sediments that once filled the Laramie Basin. That sediment fill is required in any accepted interpretation of the map evidence to explain how east-oriented floodwaters could reach the Cheyenne Tablelands region). At best the accepted paradigm interpretations can only offer vague statements about how climatic changes may have increased precipitation and runoff or that much heavier snowfall in mountains to the west resulted in large east-oriented floods. While perhaps not impossible trying to explain the modern-day drainage features, such as the North Platte River, Laramie River, Horse Creek, Lodgepole Creek, Crow Creek, and Lone Tree Creek direction changes and the absence of almost all Laramie Basin Oligocene and Miocene sediments from the accepted paradigm perspective is extremely complicated so a simpler explanation almost certainly exists. The new paradigm offers a simpler explanation that explains North Platte River, Laramie River, Horse Creek, Lodgepole Creek, Crow Creek, and Lone Tree Creek direction changes and the almost complete absence of Laramie Basin Oligocene and Miocene sediments. From the new paradigm perspective detailed drainage system features such as the Lone Tree, Crow, Lodgepole, and Horse Creek direction changes are like pieces of a large picture puzzle that when correctly assembled fit snuggly together. However, the new paradigm also requires a very different middle and late Cenozoic geologic and glacial history than what geologists working from the accepted paradigm perspective have described and resistance to the new paradigm is to be expected.

Conclusions
Geomorphologists have considered the Gangplank area to be an interesting re-search subject at least since the building of the first transcontinental railroad and detailed topographic maps of the region have been available for at least 50 years. Yet, in spite of being a well-known region and of having excellent topographic map coverage accepted paradigm rules and commonly accepted interpretations have prevented most geomorphologists from trying to explain significant drainage features such as the Crow Creek-Lone Tree Creek drainage divide (in other words the Gangplank) and the Horse, Lodgepole, Crow, and Lone Tree Creek direction changes. Further, evidence that large volumes of water once flowed across the Laramie Range and previous interpretations have caused geomorphologists abiding by accepted paradigm rules to propose that more than 400 meters of Oligocene and Miocene sediments once filled the Laramie Basin even though few if any of those sediments remain in the Laramie Basin today.
In contrast the new paradigm explains Lodgepole, Crow, and Lone Tree Creek direction turns by the sequential headward erosion of south-oriented valleys from an actively eroding northeast-oriented South Platte River valley across the south half of large east-oriented anastomosing channel complex while headward of a north-oriented valley from an actively eroding North Platte River valley across the north half of that same large anastomosing channel complex explains the Horse Creek direction turn. The new paradigm defining rule forces recognition of a continental ice sheet that deeply eroded the underlying bedrock (the accepted paradigm does not recognize such an ice sheet), heavy enough to cause crustal warping that raised regions and mountain ranges as prolonged and massive meltwater floods flowed across them (the accepted paradigm attributes regional and mountain range uplift to other causes), and of sufficient size and duration to produce immense and prolonged melt water floods able to deeply erode what is now the entire Missouri River drainage basin (accepted paradigm rules do not permit continental sheet melt water to have reached, much less to have deeply eroded, much of the Missouri River drainage basin, including this paper's study region). However, the new paradigm also forces a fundamentally different interpretation of middle and late Cenozoic glacial and geologic history than what the accepted paradigm describes and as Kuhn [1] points out scientific disciplines do not easily change paradigms and much future work is needed to demonstrate how the new paradigm explains additional easy to observe evidence.